ࡱ>  OI`"e"f"j"k"n"o"q"r" # #"###$#%#TUUUUUUUUUZZ$a$gdgdo 7$8$H$gd-TUUUUUUZ"Z$ZhEbh CJaJhh;h'JhB5CJaJhBhBCJaJhBhBCJNHaJBrad Waters A Measure of Transaction Processing 20 Years Later Jim Gray Microsoft Research April 2005 Revised September 2005 Technical Report MSR-TR-2005-57 Microsoft Research Advanced Technology Division Microsoft Corporation One Microsoft Way Redmond, WA 98052 This article appeared in the IEEE Data Engineering Bulletin A Measure of Transaction Processing 20 Years Later Jim Gray Microsoft Research April 2005 A Measure of Transaction Processing Power [1] defined three performance benchmarks: DebitCredit: a test of the database and transaction system, Sort: a test of the OS and IO system, and Copy: a test of the file system. DebitCredit morphed into TPC-A and then TPC-C. In 1985, systems were nearing 100 transactions per second, now they deliver 100,000 transactions per second, and a palmtop can deliver several thousand transactions per second (www.tpc.org, and [2]). Price-performance (measured in dollars/tps) has also improved dramatically as shown in Figure 1. The sort benchmark has seen similar improvements. The traditional Datamation sort 1M records) now runs in a fraction of a second and has been replaced by PennySort (sort as much as you can for a penny), MinuteSort (sort as much as you can in a minute), and Terabyte sort (sort a trillion records). Each of these three benchmarks has a Daytona (commercial), and Indy (benchmark special) category [3]. This year Jim Wyllie of IBM Almaden Research won both Terabyte Sort and MinuteSort medals with his  HYPERLINK "http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/2005_SCS_Wyllie.pdf" SCS (SAN Cluster Sort) [4] using SUSE Linux (SLES8) and IBMs General Parallel File System (GPFS) on an IBM 40-node 80-Itanium cluster with a SAN array of 2,520 disks. The machine delivered up to 14 GBps of IO bandwidth and sorted a terabyte in 437 seconds. SCS was able to sort 125 GB within a minute (wow!). It is hard to know the price of this system (now at UCSD) but the list price is at least $9M. At the other end of the spectrum, Robert Ramey with his  HYPERLINK "http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/2005_PostMansSort.pdf" PostmansSort used a $950 Wintel box (3.2 GHz Pentium4, 2 Maxtor SATA disks, WindowsXP) to sort 16.3 GB in 979 seconds setting a new Daytona Pennysort record [5]. Figure 2 shows that price-performance improved about 68%/year each year since 1985, handily beating Moores 58%/year law. Sort speed (records sorted per second) doubled every year between 1985 and 2000. That doubling in part came from faster hardware, in part from better software, and in part from the use of LOTS more hardware (the year 2000 system used 1,962 processors and 2,168 disks.) In the last 5 years, peak sort speed has only improved 2.4x (about 20%/year improvement). Performance improvements have been accomplished with multi-processors (hundreds of them). Price-performance improvements have come from cheaper and faster disks and from cheaper processors. But as Figure 3 shows, per-processor speeds seem to have plateaued. Sorted-records/second/processor (r/s/p for short) improved ten fold between 1985 and 1995. But speed has improved only 2.7 fold in the last decade. The 1980s saw 200 r/s/p on a minicomputer to 38.5 k r/s/p on a Cray. In 1994, AlphaSort showed the importance of cache-conscious sorts and got to 111 k r/s/p. Since then, there has been a slow climb to 280 k r/s/p (e.g., Jim Willeys SCS Itanium TerabyteSort and the Pentium4 SkeenSort.)  I conjecture that this relatively slow improvement reflects the slow improvement in memory latency. All the algorithms are now cache conscious, so they are all limited by the speed of bulk memory processor speed (and even cache speed) is not relevant here since sort cache misses are essentially random during the comparison and merge phase. But, that is just my guess. It would make an interesting study for the hardware architects -- speed problems may lie elsewhere. But, my guess is: Remember! Its the memory. The tpcC benchmark defies this conjecture. Figure 4 plots the SQLserver throughput per cpu and per MHz for Intel/AMD processors (excluding Itanium) on the tpcC benchmark over a ten year period. It shows an initial steep 3-year learning curve of rapid improvement. Starting in 1998, tpmC per MHz began a gradual decline. In 2003 the introduction of AWE, much larger caches and multi-level caches, and then in 2004 the introduction of 64-bit addressing (with 64GB address spaces) allowed the systems more memory and brought the us back to about 10 tpmC per MHz. References [1] Anon et. al.. A Measure of Transaction Processing Power, Datamation, 1 April, 1985, also at:  HYPERLINK "http://research.microsoft.com/~gray/papers/AMeasureOfTransactionProcessingPower.doc" http://research.microsoft.com/~gray/papers/AMeasureOfTransactionProcessingPower.doc [2] Jim Gray; Charles Levine, Thousands of DebitCredit Transactions per Second: Easy and Inexpensive, MSR TR 2005-39,  HYPERLINK "http://research.microsoft.com/research/pubs/view.aspx?msr_tr_id=MSR-TR-2005-39" http://research.microsoft.com/research/pubs/view.aspx?msr_tr_id=MSR-TR-2005-39 [3] Sort Benchmark Website  HYPERLINK "http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/" http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/ [4] Jim Wyllie, Sorting on a Cluster Attached to a Storage Area Network, April, 2000, HYPERLINK "http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/2005_SCS_Wyllie.pdf"http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/ 2005_SCS_Wyllie.pdf [5] Robert Ramey, 2005 Performance/Price Sort and PennySort, April, 2005  HYPERLINK "http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/%202005_PostMansSort.pdf" http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/ 2005_PostMansSort.pdf  The following text was added after the article was published in the IEEE Data Engineering Bulletin.      Figure 2: Sort speed doubled every year for the from 1985 to 2000; but it only improved 2.4x since then (a 20%/y improvement). Price-performance has steadily improved at 68%/y.  Figure 4: SQLserver tpmC vs MHz and vs cpus over time on Intel X86 and to AMD Opterons.  Figure 3: Sort speed per processor improved 100x at first, then 10x more with cache-conscious algorithms. But for the last 10 years improvement has been about 20% year probably reflecting the improvement of bulk RAM latency. 37% per year price/perf trend TPC-A 37% per year TPC-C price/perf trend TPC price/perf trend 1990-2005: improved 58% per year prices have declined 37%/y TPC-C $/tx '2004 '2002 '2000 1998 1996 1994 1992 1990 100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 Figure 1 (by Charles Levine from [2]): Price/performance trend lines for TPC-A and TPC-C. The 15-year trend lines track Moore's Law (100x per 10 years.) 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"%A+/hnlp333333333333>A^hiqz ~A;l  /hAEN`_2w!oOx "3 QTsTsjvkh;g`(#Y#|#;$%!(`)!/Z0_31i3&I45&5Ro6WX8 =r@l"Dm:IEO1S{Z3]N]a^\bEeyLe1k_\kY@mzt-ue{r ,6^)A==Jz-,cx ~7yj&6N$,L{UFP-TPO^+'JB;J pj .]B#U7~QA1 U@̈hh;h'JhL  CFGIJMYavw|}~@A0@1T1T0T1T1@0U0p>@0U0v>@0U0|>@0U0U0>@0FF@0HF@UnknownG: Times New Roman5Symbol3& : ArialAGenevaArial7&  Verdana5& zaTahoma"1h_:J+&+&*x *x *9x4d662QHX ?x2+2005 has been a impressive year for SortinggrayJim Gray` %#bjbj ZAi   XXX4t2t2t2h2`3D4f324242424>  $h>Xܳ?|ܳܳ>2424 |000ܳ624X240ܳ00\ X0243 UUt20ܹ<04000XDvT0D'>>ҷ^4ܳܳܳܳ)d )       !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEGHNRPSTURoot Entry F UUQ Data +Ll1TablebWWordDocumentFZSummaryInformation(DocumentSummaryInformation8 XCompObjq0Table  !"#$%&'()*+fice Word@| @N@'"S@#Ux՜.+,D՜.+,l( hp  Microsoft Corporation* 6 ,2005 has been a impressive year for Sorting Title P  FMicrosoft Office Word Document MSWordDocWord.Document.89qOh+'0 0< \ h t ,2005 has been a impressive year for Sortinggray Normal.dot Jim Gray7Microsoft Oflt _PID_HLINKS_AdHocReviewCycleID_NewReviewCycle_EmailSubject _AuthorEmail_AuthorEmailDisplayName_ReviewingToolsShownOnceAT*JeHhttp://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/ 2005_PostMansSort.pdfF H Ehttp://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/2005_SCS_Wyllie.pdfF Z  2http://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/F [A Ohttp://research.microsoft.com/research/pubs/view.aspx?msr_tr_id=MSR-TR-2005-39F %wThttp://research.microsoft.com/~gray/papers/AMeasureOfTransactionProcessingPower.docF ;RGhttp://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/2005_PostMansSort.pdfF H Ehttp://research.microsoft.com/barc/SortBenchmark/2005_SCS_Wyllie.pdfF (Submission to Data Engineering Bulletingray@microsoft.com Jim Gray  !"#$%&',-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`acdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~ /0ZB b  S  ZB c  S  ZB d  S  ZB e  S  ZB f  S  ZB g  S  uvZB h  S  fgZB i  S  XYZB j  S  ZB k  S  ZB l  S  ZB m  S  ZB n  S  hiZB o  S  TUZB p  S  BCZB q  S  23ZB r  S  $%ZB s  S  ZB t  S  ZB u  S  jkZB v  S  LMZB w  S  45ZB x  S   ZB y  S  ZB z  S  ZB {  S  ZB |  S  ZB }  S  ]^ZB ~  S  67ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  _`ZB   S  )*ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  XYZB   S  $%ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB   S  ZB  S  ZB  S  ZB  S  !"ZB  S  ZB  S  \ ] ZB  S    ZB  S    ZB  S  4 5 ZB  S    ZB  S  o p ZB  S    ZB  S    ZB  S  HIZB  S  ZB  S  ZB  S   ! 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