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The editorial logic depends )1(on the)-2( )]TJ 0.188 Tw T* [(subjective choices of experts, who are themselves made and authorized)-2( )]TJ 0.13 Tw T* [(through institutional processes of training and certification, or valida\ ted)-2( )]TJ 0.202 Tw T* [(by the public through the mechanisms of the market. The algorithmic)-2( )]TJ 0.148 Tw T* [(logic, by contrast, depends on the proceduralized choices of a machine,)-2( )]TJ 0.171 Tw T* (designed by human operators to automate some proxy of human judg)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.022 Tw T* [(ment or unearth patterns across collected social traces. Both struggle w\ ith,)-2( )]TJ -0.004 Tw T* [(and claim to resolve, the fundamental problem of human knowledge: how)-2( )]TJ 0.155 Tw T* (to identify relevant information crucial to the public, through unavoid)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.028 Tw T* [(ably human means, in such a way as to be free from human error, bias, or\ )-2( )]TJ -0.031 Tw T* [(manipulation. Both the algorithmic and editorial approaches to knowledge\ )-2( )]TJ 0.027 Tw T* [(are deeply important and deeply problematic; much of the scholarship on)-2( )]TJ -0.026 Tw T* [(communication, media, technology, and publics grapples with one or both)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (techniques and their pitfalls.)Tj -0.007 Tc 0.095 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (A sociological inquiry into algorithms should aspire to reveal the com)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.007 Tc 0.169 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(plex workings of this knowledge machine, both the process by which it)-7( )]TJ -0.053 Tw T* [(chooses information for users and the social process by which it is made\ into)-7( )]TJ 0.03 Tw T* [(a legitimate system. But there may be something, in the end, impenetrabl\ e)-7( )]TJ 0.029 Tw T* [(about )1(algorithms. They )1(are designed to work )1(without human )1(intervention,)-7( )]TJ -0.01 Tw T* [(they are deliberately obfuscated, and they work with information on a sc\ ale)-7( )]TJ 0.051 Tw T* [(that is hard to comprehend \(at least without other algorithmic tools\).\ And)-7( )]TJ 0.148 Tw T* [(perhaps )1(more )1(than )1(that, )1(we )1(want )1(relief )1(from )1(the )1(duty )1(of )1(being )1(skeptical)-7( )]TJ 0.019 Tw T* [(about information we cannot ever assure for certain. These mechanisms by\ )-7( )]TJ 0.021 Tw T* [(which we settle \(if not resolve\) this problem, then, are solutions we \ cannot)-7( )]TJ 0.072 Tw T* (merely rely on, but )Tj /T1_2 1 Tf 0.007 Tw (must)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.072 Tw [( believe in. But this kind of faith \(Vaidhyanathan)-7( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (2011\) renders it difficult to soberly recognize their flaws and fragili\ ties.)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.159 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(So in many ways, algorithms remain outside our grasp, and they are)-2( )]TJ 0.078 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(designed to be. This is not to say that we should not aspire to illumina\ te)-2( )]TJ 0.099 Tw T* [(their workings and impact. We should. 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Google, here, proves much less sexist than\ we)-2( )]TJ -0.01 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(are. In a response to Ananny\222s example, Gray has suggested that, just\ as we)-2( )]TJ 0.073 Tw T* [(must examine algorithms that make associations such as these, we might)-2( )]TJ -0.055 Tw T* [(also inquire into the \223cultural algorithms\224 that these association\ s represent,)-2( )]TJ 0.151 Tw T* [(\(that is, systematically associating homosexuality with sexual predatio\ n\))-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (across a massive, distributed set of \223data points\224\227us.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0.002 Tw 0 -2.889 TD (Conclusion)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.26 Tw T* [(Understanding algorithms and their impact on public discourse, then,)-2( )]TJ 0.372 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(requires thinking not simply about how they work, where they are)-2( )]TJ 0.087 Tw T* [(deployed, or what animates them financially. This is not simply a call t\ o)-2( )]TJ -0.043 Tw T* (unveil their inner workings and spotlight their implicit criteria. It is\ a socio)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.048 Tw T* [(logical inquiry that does not interest the providers of these algorithms\ , who)-2( )]TJ 0.035 Tw T* [(are not always in the best position to even ask. It requires examining w\ hy)-2( )]TJ 0.001 Tw T* [(algorithms are being looked to as a credible knowledge logic, how they f\ all)-2( )]TJ 0.074 Tw T* [(apart and are repaired when they come in contact with the ebb and flow)-2( )]TJ 0.164 Tw T* [(of public discourse, and where political assumptions might not only be)-2( )]TJ 0.048 Tw T* [(etched into their design, but also constitutive of their widespread use \ and)-2( )]TJ 0.002 Tw T* (legitimacy.)Tj -0.018 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(I see the emergence of the algorithm as a trusted information tool as )1(the)-2( )]TJ 0.124 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(latest response to a fundamental tension of public discourse. The means)-2( )]TJ 0.115 Tw T* [(by which we produce, circulate, and consume information in a complex)-2( )]TJ 0.132 Tw T* [(society must necessarily be handled through the division of labor: some)-2( )]TJ -0.025 Tw T* [(produce and select information, and the rest of us, at least in that mom\ ent,)-2( )]TJ 0.042 Tw T* [(can )1(only )1(take )1(it )1(for )1(what )1(it\222s )1(worth. )1(Every )1(public )1(medium )1(previous )1(to )1(this)-2( )]TJ -0.048 Tw T* [(has faced this challenge, from town criers to newspapers to broadcasting\ . In)-2( )]TJ 0.033 Tw T* [(each, when we )1(turn )1(over )1(the )1(provision )1(of )1(knowledge )1(to )1(others, )1(we )1(are )1(left)-2( )]TJ 0.05 Tw T* [(vulnerable to their choices, methods, and subjectivities. Sometimes this\ is)-2( )]TJ 0.063 Tw T* [(a positive, providing expertise, editorial acumen, refined taste. But we\ are)-2( )]TJ 0.057 Tw T* [(also wary of the intervention, of human failings and vested interests, a\ nd)-2( )]TJ 0.125 Tw T* [(find ourselves with only secondary mechanisms of social trust by which)-2( )]TJ 0.177 Tw T* [(to vouch for what is true and relevant \(Shapin 1995\). Their procedures\ )-2( )]TJ 0.131 Tw T* [(are largely unavailable to us. Their procedures are unavoidably selectiv\ e,)-2( )]TJ -0.034 Tw T* [(emphasizing )1(some )1(information )1(and )1(discarding )1(others, )1(and )1(the )1(choices )1(may)-2( )]TJ 0.055 Tw T* (be consequential. There is the distinct possibility of error, bias, mani\ pula)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.099 Tw T* [(tion, )1(laziness, )1(commercial or political influence, )1(or systemic )1(failures. )1(The)-2( )]TJ 0.038 Tw T* [(selection process can always be an opportunity to curate for reasons oth\ er)-2( )]TJ 0.065 Tw T* [(than )1(relevance: )1(for )1(propriety, )1(for )1(commercial )1(or )1(institutional )1(self-interest,)-2( )]TJ 0.051 Tw T* [(or for political gain. 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Tz 0 TL 0 Tr 0 Ts BT /Arial 9 Tf 1 0 0 rg 0 -7.106 Td (PROPERTY ) Tj 52.009 0 Td (OF ) Tj 14.999 0 Td (MIT ) Tj 17.995 0 Td (PRESS: ) Tj 35.513 0 Td (FOR ) Tj 21.498 0 Td (PROOFREADING ) Tj 75.507 0 Td (AND ) Tj 21.502 0 Td (INDEXING ) Tj 46.006 0 Td (PURPOSES ) Tj 52.515 0 Td (ONLY) Tj ET endstream endobj 133 0 obj <> endobj 134 0 obj <> endobj 132 0 obj <>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 108 0 obj <> endobj 104 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (190)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 94.776 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 327.152 627.1201 Tm (Tarleton Gillespie)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.002 Tc 0.027 Tw 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm [(to \223Americans\224 or what Amazon says teens read are forms of authori\ tative)-2( )]TJ 0.126 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(knowledge that can and will be invoked by institutions whose aim is to)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (regulate such populations.)Tj 0.091 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(The belief that such )1(algorithms, )1(combined with massive user )1(data, )1(are)-2( )]TJ -0.02 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(better at telling us things about the nature of the public or the consti\ tution)-2( )]TJ -0.041 Tw T* [(of society, has proven alluring for scholars as well. Social science has\ turned)-2( )]TJ 0.024 Tw T* [(eagerly toward computational techniques, or the study of human sociality\ )-2( )]TJ -0.004 Tw T* [(through \223big data\224 \(Lazer et al. 2009; for a critique, see boyd a\ nd Crawford)-2( )]TJ 0.007 Tw T* (2012\), in the hopes of enjoying the kind of insights that the biologica\ l sci)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.077 Tw T* [(ences )1(have )1(achieved, )1(by )1(algorithmically )1(looking )1(for )1(needles )1(in )1(the )1(digital)-2( )]TJ 0.15 Tw T* [(haystacks of )1(all this )1(data. The )1(approach )1(is seductive: )1(having )1(millions of)-2( )]TJ 0.055 Tw T* [(data points lends a great deal of legitimacy, and the way algorithms see\ m)-2( )]TJ 0.077 Tw T* [(to spot patterns that researchers couldn\222t see otherwise is exciting.\ \223For a)-2( )]TJ -0.032 Tw T* [(certain sort of social scientist, the traffic patterns of millions of e-\ mails look)-2( )]TJ -0.013 Tw T* (like manna from heaven\224 \()Tj /T1_2 1 Tf 0.002 Tw (Nature)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.013 Tw [( 2007\). But this methodological approach)-2( )]TJ -0.042 Tw T* (should heed the complexities described so far, particularly when a resea\ rch)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.194 Tw T* [(er\222s data has been generated by commercial algorithms. Computational)-2( )]TJ 0.061 Tw T* (research techniques are not barometers of the social. They produce hiero\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.057 Tw T* [(glyphs: shaped by the tool by which they are carved, requiring of priest\ ly)-2( )]TJ -0.055 Tw T* [(interpretation, they tell powerful but often mythological stories\227usu\ ally in)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (the service of the gods.)Tj 0.092 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Finally, when the data is us, what should we make of the associations)-2( )]TJ 0.16 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(that algorithms claim to identify about us as a society\227that we do no\ t)-2( )]TJ 0.217 Tw T* [(know, or perhaps do not want to know? In Ananny\222s \(2011\) uncanny)-2( )]TJ 0.204 Tw T* [(example, )1(he noticed )1(the )1(Android )1(Market )1(recommending )1(a )1(sex-offender)-2( )]TJ 0.015 Tw T* (location app to users who downloaded Grindr, a location-based social net\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.154 Tw T* (working tool for gay men. He speculates how the Android Market algo)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.131 Tw T* [(rithms could have made this association\227one even the operators of the\ )-2( )]TJ -0.021 Tw T* [(Android Market could not easily explain. Did the algorithm make an error\ ?)-2( )]TJ -0.009 Tw T* [(Did the algorithm make too blunt an association, simply pairing apps wit\ h)-2( )]TJ 0.104 Tw T* [(\223sex\224 in the description? Or did the Android recommendation engine\ in)-2( )]TJ -0.053 Tw T* [(fact identify )1(a )1(subtle )1(association )1(that, )1(though )1(we )1(may )1(not )1(wish )1(it )1(so, )1(is )1(regu)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.018 Tw T* [(larly made in our culture, between homosexuality and predatory behavior?\ )-2( )]TJ 0.02 Tw T* [(Zimmer \(2007\) notes a similar case: a search for the phrase \223she in\ vented\224)-2( )]TJ 0.096 Tw T* [(would return the query, \223did you mean \221he invented\222?\224 That i\ s, it did so)-2( )]TJ 0.116 Tw T* [(until Google changed the results. 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l -0.21 0.516 l h S Q q 1 0 0 1 448.9319 6 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 0.4 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m 0 4.308 l -0.828 4.308 l -2.052 0.666 l -2.064 0.666 l -3.294 4.308 l -4.128 4.308 l -4.128 0 l -3.564 0 l -3.564 2.544 l -3.564 2.67 -3.576 3.216 -3.576 3.612 c -3.564 3.612 l -2.352 0 l -1.776 0 l -0.564 3.618 l -0.552 3.618 l -0.552 3.216 -0.564 2.67 -0.564 2.544 c -0.564 0 l h S Q Q BT /T1_3 1 Tf 6 0 0 6 402 6 Tm (8/2/13 10:52 AM)Tj ET /Artifact <>BDC q 0.6546021 0 0 0.6546021 118.5 657.2513428 cm 0 g /GS2 gs /Fm1 Do Q EMC endstream endobj 106 0 obj <>>>/Resources 136 0 R/Subtype/Form>>stream 0 g 0 G 0 i 0 J []0 d 0 j 1 w 10 M 0 Tc 0 Tw 100 Tz 0 TL 0 Tr 0 Ts BT /Arial 9 Tf 1 0 0 rg 0 -7.106 Td (PROPERTY ) Tj 52.009 0 Td (OF ) Tj 14.999 0 Td (MIT ) Tj 17.995 0 Td (PRESS: ) Tj 35.513 0 Td (FOR ) Tj 21.498 0 Td (PROOFREADING ) Tj 75.507 0 Td (AND ) Tj 21.502 0 Td (INDEXING ) Tj 46.006 0 Td (PURPOSES ) Tj 52.515 0 Td (ONLY) Tj ET endstream endobj 136 0 obj <> endobj 137 0 obj <> endobj 135 0 obj <>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 105 0 obj <> endobj 101 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (189)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.002 Tc -0.029 Tw 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm [(exist until that moment, and only Facebook knows its precise membership.\ )-2( )]TJ 0.138 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(These )1(algorithmically )1(generated )1(groups )1(may )1(overlap )1(with, )1(be )1(an )1(inexact)-2( )]TJ 0.016 Tw T* [(approximation of, or have nothing whatsoever to do with the publics that\ )-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (the user sought out.)Tj 0.078 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (Some algorithms go further, making claims about the public they pur)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.021 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(port to know, and the users\222 place amid them. I have argued elsewhere\ that)-2( )]TJ 0.131 Tw T* [(Twitter\222s )1(Trends )1(algorithm )1(promises )1(users )1(a )1(glimpse )1(of )1(what )1(a )1(particular)-2( )]TJ 0.016 Tw T* [(public \(national or regional\) )1(is talking about )1(at that moment, but that it )1(is)-2( )]TJ 0.076 Tw T* [(a constructed public, shaped by Twitter\222s specific, and largely unspe\ cified)-2( )]TJ 0.145 Tw T* (criteria \(Gillespie 2012\). Klout, an online service that tracks users\222\ activ)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.119 Tw T* (ity and reputation on Facebook, Twitter, and elsewhere, promises to cal)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.136 Tw T* [(culate users\222 influence across these various social media platforms. \ Their)-2( )]TJ 0.084 Tw T* [(measures are intuitive in their definition, but completely opaque in the\ ir)-2( )]TJ -0.021 Tw T* [(mechanisms. The friction between the \223networked publics\224 forged by\ users)-2( )]TJ 0.023 Tw T* [(and the \223calculated publics\224 offered by algorithms further complic\ ates the)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (dynamics of networked sociality.)Tj 0.063 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(With other measures of public opinion, such as polling or surveys, the)-2( )]TJ 0.084 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(central problem is extrapolation, where a subset is presumed to stand fo\ r)-2( )]TJ 0.089 Tw T* [(the entire population. With algorithms, )1(the population can be the entire)-2( )]TJ 0.128 Tw T* [(user base, sometimes hundreds of millions of people \(but only that user\ )-2( )]TJ 0.157 Tw T* [(base the algorithm provider has access to\). Instead, the central proble\ m)-2( )]TJ 0.131 Tw T* [(here is that the intention behind these calculated representations of th\ e)-2( )]TJ -0.023 Tw T* [(public is by no means actuarial. Algorithms that purport to identify wha\ t is)-2( )]TJ 0.01 Tw T* (\223hot\224 engage in a calculated approximation of a public through its\ partici)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.08 Tw T* [(pants\222 traceable activity, then report back to them what they have ta\ lked)-2( )]TJ 0.127 Tw T* [(about most. But behind this, we can ask, What is the gain for providers)-2( )]TJ 0.104 Tw T* [(in )1(making )1(such )1(characterizations, )1(and )1(how )1(does )1(that )1(shape )1(what )1(they\222re)-2( )]TJ 0.06 Tw T* [(measuring? Who is being chosen to be measured in order to produce this)-2( )]TJ 0.091 Tw T* [(representation, and who is left out of the calculation? And perhaps most\ )-2( )]TJ 0.001 Tw T* (important, how do these technologies, now not just technologies of evalu\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.037 Tw T* [(ation but of representation, help to constitute and codify the publics t\ hey)-2( )]TJ 0.102 Tw T* [(claim to measure, publics that would not otherwise exist except that the\ )-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (algorithm called them into existence?)Tj 0.008 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(These questions matter a great deal, and will matter more, to the extent\ )-2( )]TJ 0.006 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(that the representations of the public produced by information algorithm\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.152 Tw T* [(get taken up, by users or by authorities, as legitimate, and incorporate\ d)-2( )]TJ -0.041 Tw T* [(into the broader modernist project of reflexivity \(Giddens 1990\). \223\ Society is)-2( )]TJ 0.051 Tw T* (engaged in monitoring itself, scrutinizing itself, portraying itself in \ a vari)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.003 Tw T* [(ety )1(of )1(ways, )1(and )1(feeding 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)1(that )1(can )1(assemble )1(through )1(social )1(media, )1(and )1(the )1(way )1(the)-2( )]TJ -0.045 Tw T* [(technologies structure how these publics can form, interact, and sometim\ es)-2( )]TJ 0.122 Tw T* [(fall apart. \223While networked publics share much in common with other)-2( )]TJ 0.013 Tw T* [(types of publics, the ways in which technology structures them introduce\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.206 Tw T* (distinct affordances that shape how people engage with these environ)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.044 Tw T* (ments\224 \(boyd 2010, 39\). 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R/Subtype/Form>>stream 0 g 0 G 0 i 0 J []0 d 0 j 1 w 10 M 0 Tc 0 Tw 100 Tz 0 TL 0 Tr 0 Ts BT /Arial 9 Tf 1 0 0 rg 0 -7.106 Td (PROPERTY ) Tj 52.009 0 Td (OF ) Tj 14.999 0 Td (MIT ) Tj 17.995 0 Td (PRESS: ) Tj 35.513 0 Td (FOR ) Tj 21.498 0 Td (PROOFREADING ) Tj 75.507 0 Td (AND ) Tj 21.502 0 Td (INDEXING ) Tj 46.006 0 Td (PURPOSES ) Tj 52.515 0 Td (ONLY) Tj ET endstream endobj 142 0 obj <> endobj 143 0 obj <> endobj 141 0 obj <>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 99 0 obj <> endobj 95 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (187)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.002 Tc 0.263 Tw 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm [(invitation to understand ourselves through the independent lens they)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw 0 -1.444 TD (promise to provide.)Tj -0.026 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Algorithms are not just what their designers make of them, or what they)-2( )]TJ -0.028 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(make of the information they process. They are also what we make of them\ )-2( )]TJ 0.03 Tw T* [(day in and day out\227but with this caveat: because the logic, maintenan\ ce,)-2( )]TJ 0.076 Tw T* [(and )1(redesign of )1(these )1(algorithms )1(remain )1(in )1(the hands of )1(the )1(information)-2( )]TJ 0.035 Tw T* (providers, they are in a distinctly privileged position to rewrite our u\ nder)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.055 Tw T* [(standing of them, or to engender a lingering uncertainty about their cri\ teria)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (that makes it difficult for us to treat the algorithms as truly our own.\ )Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0 -2.889 TD (Knowledge Logics)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.003 Tc 0.111 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(It is easy to theorize, but substantially more difficult to document, ho\ w)3( )]TJ 0.136 Tw T* [(users may shift their worldviews to accommodate the underlying logics)3( )]TJ 0.013 Tw T* [(and implicit presumptions of the algorithms they use regularly. There is\ a)3( )]TJ -0.037 Tw T* [(case to be made that the working logics of these algorithms not only sha\ pe)3( )]TJ 0.147 Tw T* (user practices, but also lead users to internalize their norms and prior\ i)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj 0.003 Tc 0.004 Tw T* [(ties: Bucher )1(\(2012\) )1(argues )1(that )1(the )1(EdgeRank )1(algorithm, )1(used )1(by )1(Facebook)3( )]TJ 0.065 Tw T* [(to determine which status updates get prominently displayed on a users\222\ )3( )]TJ 0.089 Tw T* (news feed, encourages a \223participatory subjectivity\224 in users, who\ recog)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj 0.003 Tc 0.143 Tw T* [(nize )1(that )1(gestures )1(of )1(affinity )1(\(such )1(as )1(commenting )1(on )1(a )1(friends\222 )1(photo\))3( )]TJ -0.001 Tw T* [(are a key criteria in Facebook\222s algorithm. Longford \(2005\) argues \ that the)3( )]TJ 0.062 Tw T* [(code of commercial platform \223habituates\224 us, through incessant req\ uests)3( )]TJ 0.147 Tw T* [(and carefully designed default settings, toward giving over more of our)3( )]TJ 0.062 Tw T* (personal information. Mager \(2012\) and van Couvering \(2010\) both pro\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj 0.003 Tc 0.147 Tw T* [(pose )1(that the )1(principles )1(of )1(capitalism )1(are )1(embedded in the workings )1(of)3( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (search engines.)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.123 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (But we need not resort to such muscular theories of ideological dom)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.167 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(ination to suggest that algorithms designed to offer relevant knowledge)-2( )]TJ 0.052 Tw T* [(also offer ways of knowing\227and that as they become more pervasive and\ )-2( )]TJ 0.008 Tw T* [(trusted, their logics are self-affirming. Google\222s search engine, ami\ d its 200)-2( )]TJ 0.046 Tw T* [(signals, does presume that relevant knowledge is assured largely by publ\ ic)-2( )]TJ -0.019 Tw T* (ratification, adjusted to weigh heavily the opinions of those who are th\ em)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.168 Tw T* (selves publicly ratified. This blend of the wisdom of crowds and collec)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.014 Tw T* [(tively )1(certified )1(authorities )1(is )1(Google\222s )1(solution )1(to )1(the )1(longstanding )1(tension)-2( )]TJ 0.15 Tw T* [(between expertise and common sense, in the enduring problem of how)-2( )]TJ 0.027 Tw T* [(to know. 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d 0 j 1 w 10 M 0 Tc 0 Tw 100 Tz 0 TL 0 Tr 0 Ts BT /Arial 9 Tf 1 0 0 rg 0 -7.106 Td (PROPERTY ) Tj 52.009 0 Td (OF ) Tj 14.999 0 Td (MIT ) Tj 17.995 0 Td (PRESS: ) Tj 35.513 0 Td (FOR ) Tj 21.498 0 Td (PROOFREADING ) Tj 75.507 0 Td (AND ) Tj 21.502 0 Td (INDEXING ) Tj 46.006 0 Td (PURPOSES ) Tj 52.515 0 Td (ONLY) Tj ET endstream endobj 163 0 obj <> endobj 164 0 obj <> endobj 162 0 obj <>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 160 0 obj <> endobj 156 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (185)Tj -0.002 Tc 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm (Backstage Access)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.041 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(But who is best positioned to understand and operate the public algorith\ ms)-2( )]TJ 0.081 Tw T* [(that matter so much to the public circulation of knowledge? Insight into\ )-2( )]TJ 0.004 Tw T* (the workings of information algorithms is a form of power: vital to part\ ici)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.014 Tw T* (pating in public discourse, essential to achieving visibility online, co\ nstitu)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.04 Tw T* [(tive of credibility and the opportunities that follow. As mentioned befo\ re,)-2( )]TJ -0.014 Tw T* [(the criteria and code of algorithms are generally obscured\227but not eq\ ually)-2( )]TJ 0.036 Tw T* [(or from everyone. For most users, their understanding of these algorithm\ s)-2( )]TJ -0.003 Tw T* [(may be vague, simplistic, sometimes mistaken; they may attempt to nudge)-2( )]TJ 0.247 Tw T* [(the algorithm in ways that are either simply considered best practices)-2( )]TJ -0.016 Tw T* [(\(hashtags, metadata\) or that fundamentally misunderstand the algorithm\ \222s)-2( )]TJ 0.127 Tw T* [(criteria \(as with repeatedly retweeting the same message in the hopes o\ f)-2( )]TJ 0.031 Tw T* [(trending on Twitter\). Search engine optimizers and spammers have just a\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.071 Tw T* [(little access, but have developed )1(a great deal of technical skill in )1(divining)-2( )]TJ 0.148 Tw T* (the criteria beneath the algorithm through testing and reverse-engineer)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.084 Tw T* [(ing. Communities of technology enthusiasts and critics engage in similar\ )-2( )]TJ -0.07 Tw T* [(attempts )1(to )1(uncover )1(the )1(workings )1(of )1(these )1(systems, )1(whether )1(for )1(fun, )1(insight,)-2( )]TJ 0.059 Tw T* [(personal advantage, or determined disruption. Legislators, who have only\ )-2( )]TJ 0.121 Tw T* [(just begun to ask questions about the implications of algorithms for fai\ r)-2( )]TJ 0.11 Tw T* [(commerce or political discourse, have thus far been given only the most)-2( )]TJ 0.179 Tw T* [(general of explanations: information providers often contend that their)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (algorithms are trade secrets that must not be divulged in a public venue\ .)Tj 0.107 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (Furthermore, some stakeholders are in fact granted access to the algo)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.225 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(rithm, though under controlled conditions. Advertisers are offered one)-2( )]TJ 0.154 Tw T* [(kind of access to the backstage workings of that system, for bidding on)-2( )]TJ -0.056 Tw T* (preferred placement. Information providers that offer Application Progra\ m)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.05 Tw T* (ming Interfaces \(APIs\) to their commercial partners and third-party de\ vel)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.066 Tw T* [(opers give them a glimpse under the )1(hood, but )1(bind them with )1(contracts)-2( )]TJ -0.008 Tw T* (and nondisclosure agreements in the very same moment. Access to, under)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.037 Tw T* [(standing of, and rights regarding the algorithms that play a crucial rol\ e in)-2( )]TJ 0.019 Tw T* (public discourse and knowledge will likely change, for different stakeho\ ld)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.043 Tw T* [(ers and under specific circumstances\227changing also the power to build\ for,)-2( )]TJ 0.123 Tw T* (navigate through, and regulate these algorithms available to these stake\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (holders and those they represent.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0.002 Tw 0 -2.889 TD (Domestication)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.04 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(As much as these tools may urge us to make ourselves legible to them, we\ )-2( )]TJ 0.12 Tw T* [(also take them into our practices, shifting their meaning and sometimes)-2( )]TJ -0.028 Tw T* [(even their design along the way. 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Some may work to be notice\ d by)-2( )]TJ -0.056 Tw T* [(the algorithm: teens )1(have been )1(known to tag their status updates with unre)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.002 Tw T* [(lated brand names, in the hopes that Facebook will privilege those updat\ es)-2( )]TJ 0.116 Tw T* (in their friends\222 feeds.)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw 5.4 0 0 5.4 175.1924 282.3851 Tm (6)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.116 Tw 9 0 0 9 178.2811 278.3851 Tm [( Others may work to evade an algorithm: Napster)-2( )]TJ -0.023 Tw -10.809 -1.444 Td [(and )1(P2P )1(users )1(sharing )1(infringing )1(copyrighted )1(music )1(were )1(known )1(to )1(slightly)-2( )]TJ 0.061 Tw T* [(misspell )1(the )1(artists\222 )1(names, )1(so )1(users )1(might )1(find )1(\223Britny )1(Speers\224 )1(recordings)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (but the record industry software would not.)Tj 0 Tc 5.4 0 0 5.4 263.6341 243.3851 Tm (7)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.069 Tw 9 0 0 9 93 226.3851 Tm [(Is this gaming the system? Or is it a fundamental way we, to some degree\ ,)-2( )]TJ 0.026 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(orient ourselves toward the means of distribution through which we hope)-2( )]TJ 0.01 Tw T* [(to speak? Based )1(on the criteria of )1(the algorithm in question \(or )1(by our best)-2( )]TJ -0.016 Tw T* (estimate of its workings\), we make ourselves )Tj /T1_2 1 Tf (already algorithmically recogniz)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.002 Tw T* (able)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.004 Tw [( in all sorts of ways. This is not so different than newsmakers orientin\ g)-2( )]TJ -0.05 Tw T* [(their efforts to fit the routines of the news industry: timing a press r\ elease to)-2( )]TJ 0.017 Tw T* [(make the evening broadcast, or providing packaged video to a cable outle\ t)-2( )]TJ -0.029 Tw T* [(hungry )1(for )1(gripping )1(footage, )1(are )1(techniques )1(for )1(turning )1(to )1(face )1(the )1(medium)-2( )]TJ 0.124 Tw T* [(that may amplify them. 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1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (183)Tj -0.002 Tc 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm (Entanglement with Practice)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.045 Tw 0 -2.889 TD [(Though they could be studied as abstract computational tools, algorithms\ )-2( )]TJ -0.001 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(are built to be embedded into practice in the lived world that produces \ the)-2( )]TJ 0.127 Tw T* [(information they process, and in the lived world of their users \(Couldr\ y)-2( )]TJ 0.145 Tw T* [(2012\). This is especially true when the algorithm is the instrument of \ a)-2( )]TJ 0.184 Tw T* [(business for which the information it delivers \(or the advertisements i\ t)-2( )]TJ 0.088 Tw T* [(pairs with it\) is the commodity. If users fail or refuse to fit that to\ ol into)-2( )]TJ 0.025 Tw T* [(their practices, to make it meaningful, that algorithm will fail. This m\ eans)-2( )]TJ 0.193 Tw T* [(we must consider not their \223effect\224 on people, but a multidimensio\ nal)-2( )]TJ 0.115 Tw T* (\223entanglement\224 between algorithms put into practice and the social\ tac)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.108 Tw T* [(tics of users who take them up. This relationship is, of course, a movin\ g)-2( )]TJ 0.042 Tw T* [(target, because algorithms change, and the user populations and activiti\ es)-2( )]TJ 0.141 Tw T* [(they encounter change as well. Still, this should not imply that there i\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.061 Tw T* [(no relationship. As these algorithms have nestled into people\222s daily\ lives)-2( )]TJ 0.019 Tw T* (and mundane information practices, users shape and rearticulate the algo\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.011 Tw T* (rithms they encounter; and algorithms impinge on how people seek infor)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.056 Tw T* [(mation, how they perceive and think about the contours of knowledge, and\ )-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (how they understand themselves in and through public discourse.)Tj -0.029 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (It is important that we conceive of this entanglement not as a one-direc\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.145 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(tional )1(influence, )1(but )1(as )1(a )1(recursive )1(loop )1(between )1(the )1(calculations )1(of )1(the)-2( )]TJ 0.007 Tw T* [(algorithm and the \223calculations\224 of people. The algorithm that hel\ ps users)-2( )]TJ 0.149 Tw T* [(navigate Flickr\222s photo archive is built on the archive of photos pos\ ted,)-2( )]TJ -0.028 Tw T* [(which means it is designed to apprehend and reflect back the choices mad\ e)-2( )]TJ -0.048 Tw T* [(by photographers. What people do )1(and do not )1(photograph is already a kind)-2( )]TJ 0.057 Tw T* [(of calculation, though one that is historical, multivalent, contingent, \ and)-2( )]TJ 0.082 Tw T* [(sociologically informed. But these were not Flickr\222s only design impu\ lses;)-2( )]TJ 0.097 Tw T* [(sensitivity to photographic practices had to compete with cost, technica\ l)-2( )]TJ 0.069 Tw T* [(efficiency, legal obligation, and business imperatives. And the populati\ on)-2( )]TJ 0.062 Tw T* [(of Flickr users )1(and the )1(types of )1(photos they )1(post changed as the site grew)-2( )]TJ -0.038 Tw T* (in popularity, was forced to compete with Facebook, introduced tiered pr\ ic)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (ing, was bought by Yahoo, and so forth.)Tj 0.018 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Many )1(Flickr users )1(post )1(photos )1(with )1(the )1(express )1(purpose )1(of )1(having )1(them)-2( )]TJ 0.212 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(be seen: some are professional photographers looking for employment,)-2( )]TJ 0.059 Tw T* [(some are seeking communities of like-minded hobbyists, some are simply)-2( )]TJ -0.023 Tw T* (proud of their work. So just as the algorithm must be sensitive to photo\ gra)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.047 Tw T* [(phers, photographers have an interest in being sensitive to the algorith\ m,)-2( )]TJ 0.05 Tw T* [(aware that being delivered in response to the right search might put the\ ir)-2( )]TJ -0.033 Tw T* [(photo )1(in )1(front )1(of )1(the )1(right )1(people. )1(Just )1(as )1(Hollywood\222s )1(emphasis )1(on )1(specific)-2( )]TJ ET q 0 0 474 690 re W n q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 1.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 1 SCN 0.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 32.578 7.41 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 0.4 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m 0.39 0 0.81 0.18 0.966 0.504 c 0.978 0.492 l 0.846 -0.6 0.54 -1.086 -0.036 -1.086 c -0.468 -1.086 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The promise of algorithmic)-2( )]TJ 0.003 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(objectivity, too, has been palpably incorporated into the working practi\ ces)-2( )]TJ 0.122 Tw T* [(of algorithm providers, constitutively defining the function and purpose\ )-2( )]TJ 0.088 Tw T* [(of the information service. When Google includes in its \223Ten Things W\ e)-2( )]TJ 0.093 Tw T* [(Know to Be True\224 manifesto that \223Our users trust our objectivity a\ nd no)-2( )]TJ -0.001 Tw T* [(short-term )1(gain )1(could )1(ever )1(justify )1(breaching )1(that )1(trust,\224 )1(this )1(is )1(neither )1(spin)-2( )]TJ -0.039 Tw T* [(nor corporate Kool-Aid. It is a deeply ingrained understanding of the pu\ blic)-2( )]TJ 0.166 Tw T* [(character of Google\222s information service, one that both influences a\ nd)-2( )]TJ 0.048 Tw T* [(legitimizes )1(many )1(of )1(its )1(technical )1(and )1(commercial )1(undertakings, )1(and )1(helps)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (obscure the messier reality of the service it provides.)Tj 0.279 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Still, these claims must compete in the public dialogue with other)-2( )]TJ 0.097 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(articulations, )1(which )1(may )1(or )1(may )1(not )1(be )1(so )1(friendly )1(to )1(the )1(economic )1(and)-2( )]TJ 0.15 Tw T* [(ideological aims of the stakeholders. Bijker \(1997\) calls these compet\ ing)-2( )]TJ 0.242 Tw T* [(\223technological frames\224 the discursive characterizations of a techn\ ology)-2( )]TJ -0.007 Tw T* [(made )1(by )1(groups )1(of )1(actors )1(who )1(also )1(have )1(a )1(stake )1(in )1(that )1(technology\222s )1(opera)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.087 Tw T* [(tion, meaning, and social value. What users of an information algorithm)-2( )]TJ 0.117 Tw T* [(take it to be, and whether they are astute or ignorant, matters. How the\ )-2( )]TJ 0.015 Tw T* (press portrays such tools will strengthen or undermine the providers\222\ care)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.009 Tw T* [(ful discursive efforts. This means that, while the algorithm itself may \ seem)-2( )]TJ -0.019 Tw T* (to possess an aura of technological neutrality, or to embody populist, m\ eri)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.125 Tw T* [(tocratic ideals, how it comes to appear that way depends not just on its\ )-2( )]TJ -0.024 Tw T* [(design but also on the mundane realities of news cycles, press releases,\ tech)-2( )]TJ -0.048 Tw T* [(blogs, fan discussion, user rebellion, and the machinations of the algor\ ithm)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (provider\222s competitors.)Tj 0.032 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (There is a fundamental paradox in the articulation of algorithms. Algo)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.162 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(rithmic )1(objectivity )1(is )1(an )1(important )1(claim )1(for )1(a )1(provider, )1(particularly )1(for)-2( )]TJ -0.037 Tw T* (algorithms that serve up vital and volatile information for public consu\ mp)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.009 Tw T* [(tion. Articulating the algorithm as a distinctly technical intervention \ helps)-2( )]TJ 0.079 Tw T* [(an )1(information )1(provider )1(answer )1(charges )1(of )1(bias, )1(error, )1(and )1(manipulation.)-2( )]TJ 0.036 Tw T* (At the same time, as can be seen with Google\222s PageRank, there is a s\ ocio)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.107 Tw T* [(political value in highlighting the populism of the criteria the algorit\ hm)-2( )]TJ -0.052 Tw T* (uses. To claim that an algorithm is a democratic proxy for the web-wide \ col)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.001 Tw T* (lective opinion of a particular website lends it authority. And there is\ com)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.075 Tw T* [(mercial value in claiming that the algorithm returns \223better\224 resu\ lts than)-2( )]TJ 0.166 Tw T* [(its provider\222s competitors, which posits customer satisfaction over s\ ome)-2( )]TJ 0.137 Tw T* [(notion of accuracy \(van Couvering 2007\). In examining the articulation\ )-2( )]TJ 0.131 Tw T* [(of an algorithm, we should pay particular attention to how this tension)-2( )]TJ 0.088 Tw T* (between technically assured neutrality and the social flavor of the asse\ ss)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (ment being made is managed\227and, sometimes, where it breaks down.)Tj ET q 0 0 474 690 re W n q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 1.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 1 SCN 0.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 32.578 7.41 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 0.4 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m 0.39 0 0.81 0.18 0.966 0.504 c 0.978 0.492 l 0.846 -0.6 0.54 -1.086 -0.036 -1.086 c -0.468 -1.086 -0.72 -0.822 -0.75 -0.396 c -1.278 -0.396 l -1.278 -0.804 -1.014 -1.524 -0.024 -1.524 c 1.428 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[(\(2005\) observes, this process requires more than a single, full-throat\ ed)-2( )]TJ 0.104 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(description: it depends both on \223repetition and citation\224 \(81\) a\ nd at the)-2( )]TJ -0.042 Tw T* [(same time requires \223the \221covering over\222 of the \221authoritativ\ e set of practices\222)-2( )]TJ -0.033 Tw T* [(that )1(lend it )1(force.\224 \(82\) )1(When an information provider finds itself criticized)-2( )]TJ 0.035 Tw T* [(for the results it provides, the legitimacy of its algorithm must be rep\ aired)-2( )]TJ 0.041 Tw T* [(both )1(discursively and )1(technically. And users are )1(complicit )1(in this: \223A )1(soci)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.057 Tw T* [(ety that obsesses over the top Google News results has made those result\ s)-2( )]TJ -0.008 Tw T* [(important, and we are ill-advised to assume the reverse \(that the resul\ ts are)-2( )]TJ 0.002 Tw T* [(obsessed )1(over )1(because )1(they )1(are )1(important\) )1(without )1(some )1(narrative )1(account)-2( )]TJ 0.041 Tw T* [(of why the algorithm is superior to, say, the \221news judgment\222 of e\ ditors at)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (traditional media\224 \(Pasquale 2009\).)Tj 0.194 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(This articulation happens first in the presentation of the tool, in its)-2( )]TJ 0.098 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(deployment within a broader information service. Calling them \223result\ s\224)-2( )]TJ -0.023 Tw T* [(or \223best\224 or \223top stories\224 or \223trends\224 speaks not only\ to what the algorithm)-2( )]TJ 0.025 Tw T* (is actually measuring, but also to what it should be understood as measu\ r)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.079 Tw T* [(ing. An equally important part of this discursive work comes in the form\ )-2( )]TJ 0.093 Tw T* [(of describing how the algorithm works. Even what may seem like a clear)-2( )]TJ 0.111 Tw T* [(explanation of a behind-the-scenes process is not actually a glimpse of \ a)-2( )]TJ -0.024 Tw T* (real backstage process, but a \223performed backstage\224 \(Hilgartner 2\ 000\), care)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.04 Tw T* [(fully )1(crafted to )1(further )1(legitimize the )1(process )1(and )1(its results. The description)-2( )]TJ -0.012 Tw T* [(of Google\222s PageRank system, the earliest component of its complex se\ arch)-2( )]TJ 0.011 Tw T* (algorithm, was published first as a technical paper \(already a crafted \ rendi)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.054 Tw T* [(tion )1(of )1(its )1(mathematical )1(workings\), )1(but )1(was )1(subsequently )1(mythologized\227)]TJ -0.023 Tw T* [(as the defining feature of the tool, as the central element that made Go\ ogle)-2( )]TJ 0.07 Tw T* [(stand out above its then competitors, and as a fundamentally democratic)-2( )]TJ 0.076 Tw T* [(computational logic\227even as the algorithm was being redesigned to tak\ e)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (into account hundreds of other criteria.)Tj 0.025 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Above all else, the providers of information algorithms must assert that\ )-2( )]TJ 0.179 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td (their algorithms are impartial. The performance of )Tj /T1_2 1 Tf (algorithmic objectivity)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw 34.667 0 Td ( )Tj -0.002 Tc 0.096 Tw -34.667 -1.444 Td [(has become fundamental to the maintenance of these tools as legitimate)-2( )]TJ 0.017 Tw T* [(brokers of relevant knowledge. No provider has been more adamant about)-2( )]TJ 0.127 Tw T* [(the neutrality of its algorithm than Google, which regularly responds to\ )-2( )]TJ 0.182 Tw T* [(requests to alter its search results with the assertion that the algorit\ hm)-2( )]TJ 0.025 Tw T* [(must not be tampered with. Google famously pulled out of China in 2010)-2( )]TJ 0.098 Tw T* [(entirely rather than censor its results, though Google had complied with\ )-2( )]TJ 0.147 Tw T* [(China\222s rules before, and may have pulled out rather than admit it wa\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.104 Tw T* [(losing to its Chinese competitors. Despite Google\222s stance, it did al\ ter its)-2( )]TJ 0.101 Tw T* [(search results when complaints arose about a racist Photoshopped image)-2( )]TJ 0.023 Tw T* [(of Michelle Obama at the top of the Image search results; Google provide\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.217 Tw T* [(a SafeSearch )1(mechanism )1(for keeping profanity and sexual )1(images from)-2( )]TJ ET q 0 0 474 690 re W n q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 1.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 1 SCN 0.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 32.578 7.41 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 0.4 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m 0.39 0 0.81 0.18 0.966 0.504 c 0.978 0.492 l 0.846 -0.6 0.54 -1.086 -0.036 -1.086 c -0.468 -1.086 -0.72 -0.822 -0.75 -0.396 c -1.278 -0.396 l -1.278 -0.804 -1.014 -1.524 -0.024 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ET endstream endobj 196 0 obj <> endobj 197 0 obj <> endobj 195 0 obj <>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 187 0 obj <> endobj 183 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (179)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.002 Tc 0.148 Tw 9 0 0 9 93 590.3851 Tm [(Each algorithm is premised on both an assumption about the proper)-2( )]TJ 0.155 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(assessment of relevance, and an instantiation of that assumption into a)-2( )]TJ 0.035 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(technique for \(computational\) evaluation. There may be implicit premis\ es)-2( )]TJ 0.129 Tw T* [(built into a site\222s idea of relevance, there may be shortcuts built i\ nto its)-2( )]TJ 0.014 Tw T* [(technical instantiation of that idea, and there may be friction between \ the)-2( )]TJ 0.002 Tw T* (two.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0 Tw 0 -2.889 TD (The Promise of Algorithmic Objectivity)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.023 Tw T* [(More than mere tools, algorithms are also stabilizers of trust, practica\ l and)-2( )]TJ 0.108 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(symbolic assurances that their evaluations are fair and accurate, and fr\ ee)-2( )]TJ 0.165 Tw T* [(from subjectivity, error, or attempted influence. But, though algorithms\ )-2( )]TJ 0.024 Tw T* [(may )1(appear )1(to be )1(automatic and untarnished )1(by the )1(interventions of their)-2( )]TJ 0.149 Tw T* (providers, this is a carefully crafted fiction. \223Search engines pride\ them)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.274 Tw T* [(selves on being automated, except when they aren\222t.\224 \(Grimmelmann\ )-2( )]TJ 0.055 Tw T* [(2008, 950\) In fact, no information service can be completely hands-off \ in)-2( )]TJ 0.06 Tw T* [(its )1(delivery )1(of )1(information: )1(though )1(an )1(algorithm )1(may )1(evaluate )1(any )1(site )1(as)-2( )]TJ -0.029 Tw T* (most relevant to your query, that result will not appear if it is child \ pornog)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.065 Tw T* [(raphy, it will not appear in China if it is dissident political speech, \ and it)-2( )]TJ 0.016 Tw T* [(will not appear in France if it promotes Nazism. Yet it\222s very import\ ant for)-2( )]TJ 0.003 Tw T* [(the providers of these algorithms that they seem hands-off. The legitima\ cy)-2( )]TJ 0.056 Tw T* [(of )1(these functioning )1(mechanisms )1(must be performed alongside the )1(provi)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (sion of information itself.)Tj 0.002 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (The )Tj /T1_2 1 Tf 2.059 0 Td (articulations)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.017 Tw [( )1(offered )1(by )1(the )1(algorithm )1(provider )1(alongside )1(its )1(tool )1(are)-2( )]TJ 0.225 Tw -3.393 -1.444 Td [(meant to provide what Pfaffenberger \(1992\) calls \223logonomic control\ ,\224)-2( )]TJ 0.078 Tw T* [(to define the tool within the practices of users, to bestow the tool wit\ h a)-2( )]TJ -0.025 Tw T* [(legitimacy that then carries to the information provided and, by proxy, \ the)-2( )]TJ 0.034 Tw T* [(provider. 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This includes carefully characterizi\ ng)-2( )]TJ 0.075 Tw T* [(the tool and its value to a variety of audiences, sometimes in a variety\ of)-2( )]TJ 0.103 Tw T* [(ways: an algorithm can be defended as a tool for impartial evaluation to\ )-2( )]TJ 0.056 Tw T* [(those critical of its results, and at the same time be promised as a too\ l for)-2( )]TJ 0.01 Tw T* [(selective promotion to potential advertisers \(Gillespie 2010\). 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Because blocks of common interests, or social factions, can a\ ffect)-2( )]TJ 0.131 Tw T* [(the results of a search to a degree depending on their relative weight i\ n)-2( )]TJ 0.066 Tw T* [(the network, the results of the algorithmic calculation by a search engi\ ne)-2( )]TJ -0.021 Tw T* [(come to reflect political struggles in society\224 \(Finkelstein 2008, 1\ 07\). When)-2( )]TJ -0.017 Tw T* [(a news discussion site decides what ratio of negative complaints to numb\ er)-2( )]TJ 0.07 Tw T* [(of views is sufficient to justify automatically hiding a comment thread,\ it)-2( )]TJ -0.034 Tw T* [(represents their assessment of the proper volatility of public discourse\ , or at)-2( )]TJ -0.055 Tw T* [(least the volatility they prefer, for the user community they think they\ have)-2( )]TJ 0.04 Tw T* [(\(Braun 2011\). 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<>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 181 0 obj <> endobj 177 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (177)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.002 Tc 0.111 Tw 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm [(instance, search engine optimization\), reifying choices made and forcin\ g)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw 0 -1.444 TD (additional ones.)Tj 0.161 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(For )1(example, early critics )1(worried that search )1(engines would offer up)-2( )]TJ 0.095 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(advertisements in the form of links or featured content, presented as th\ e)-2( )]TJ 0.001 Tw T* [(product of algorithmic calculations. The rapid and clear public rejectio\ n of)-2( )]TJ 0.087 Tw T* [(this ploy demonstrated how strong our trust in these algorithms is: user\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.033 Tw T* (did not wish the content that providers wanted us to see for financial r\ ea)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.024 Tw T* [(sons to be intermingled with content that the provider had algorithmical\ ly)-2( )]TJ 0.115 Tw T* [(selected. But the concern is now multidimensional: the landscape of )1(the)-2( )]TJ 0.078 Tw T* (Facebook News Feed, for example, can no longer be described as two dis)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.014 Tw T* [(tinct territories, social and commercial; rather, it interweaves the res\ ults of)-2( )]TJ -0.026 Tw T* [(algorithmic calculations \(what status updates and other activities of f\ riends)-2( )]TJ 0.049 Tw T* [(should )1(be )1(listed )1(in the feed, what )1(links )1(will )1(be recommended )1(to this user,)-2( )]TJ T* [(which friends are actively on the site at the moment\), structural eleme\ nts)-2( )]TJ -0.027 Tw T* (\(tools for contributing a status update, commenting on an information e\ le)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.132 Tw T* [(ment, links to groups and pages\), and elements placed there based on a)-2( )]TJ 0.018 Tw T* [(sponsorship relationship \(banner ads, apps from )1(third-party sites\). )1(To )1(map)-2( )]TJ 0.081 Tw T* [(this )1(complex terrain )1(requires )1(a )1(deep understanding of )1(the )1(economic )1(rela)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (tionships and social assumptions it represents.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0 -2.889 TD (Epistemological Premises)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.183 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(Finally, we must consider if the evaluative criteria of the algorithm ar\ e)-2( )]TJ 0.011 Tw T* [(structured by specific political or organizational principles that thems\ elves)-2( )]TJ -0.032 Tw T* [(have political ramifications. This is not just whether an algorithm migh\ t be)-2( )]TJ 0.014 Tw T* [(partial to this or that provider or might favor its own commercial inter\ ests)-2( )]TJ 0.165 Tw T* [(over others. It is a question of whether the philosophical presumptions)-2( )]TJ -0.037 Tw T* [(about relevant knowledge on which the algorithm is founded matter. Some)-2( )]TJ 0.017 Tw T* (early scholarship looking at the biases of search engines \(in order of \ publi)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.013 Tw T* [(cation, Introna and Nissenbaum 2000; Halavais 2008; Rogers 2009; Granka)-2( )]TJ 0.217 Tw T* [(2010\) noted )1(some )1(structural tendencies )1(toward what\222s )1(already )1(popular,)-2( )]TJ -0.034 Tw T* (toward English-language sites, and toward commercial information provid)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.137 Tw T* [(ers. Legal scholars debating what it would mean to require neutrality in\ )-2( )]TJ -0.044 Tw T* [(search results \(Grimmelmann 2010; Pasquale and Bracha 2008\) have meant\ )-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (more than just the inability to tip results toward a commercial partner.\ )Tj 0.121 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td (The criteria public information algorithms take into account are myr)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.159 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(iad; each is fitted with a threshold for what will push something up in)-2( )]TJ 0.115 Tw T* [(the results, position one result above another, and so on. So evaluation\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.119 Tw T* [(performed by algorithms always depend on inscribed assumptions about)-2( )]TJ 0.066 Tw T* [(what matters, and how what matters can be identified. 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This leaves algorithms perennially open to user suspicion that t\ heir)-2( )]TJ 0.061 Tw T* (criteria skew to the provider\222s commercial or political benefit, or i\ ncorpo)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.032 Tw T* [(rate )1(embedded, )1(unexamined )1(assumptions )1(that )1(act )1(below )1(the )1(level )1(of )1(aware)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (ness, even that of the designers \(Gillespie 2012\).)Tj 0.073 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(An information provider like Twitter cannot be much more explicit or)-2( )]TJ -0.004 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(precise about its algorithms\222 workings. To do so would give competito\ rs an)-2( )]TJ 0.052 Tw T* [(easy means of duplicating and surpassing its service. It would also requ\ ire)-2( )]TJ 0.12 Tw T* [(a more technical explanation than most users are prepared for. 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With a few excep)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (tions, the tendency is strongly toward being oblique.)Tj 0 Tc 5.4 0 0 5.4 301.9014 230.3851 Tm (3)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf -0.002 Tc 9 0 0 9 81 200.3851 Tm (Commercial Aims)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.113 Tw T* [(A second approach might entail a careful consideration of the economic)-2( )]TJ 0.013 Tw T* [(and the cultural contexts from which the algorithm came. Any knowledge)-2( )]TJ 0.026 Tw T* (system emerges amid the economic and political aims of information pro)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.157 Tw T* [(vision, and will be shaped by the aims and strategies of those powerful)-2( )]TJ -0.042 Tw T* [(institutions looking to capitalize on it \(Hesmondhalgh 2006\). The pres\ sures)-2( )]TJ 0.245 Tw T* [(faced by search engines, content platforms, and information providers)-2( )]TJ 0.135 Tw T* [(can subtly shape the design of the algorithm itself and the presentation\ )-2( )]TJ 0.062 Tw T* [(of its results \(Vaidhyanathan 2011\). 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ET /Artifact <>BDC q 0.6546021 0 0 0.6546021 118.5 657.2513428 cm 0 g /GS2 gs /Fm1 Do Q EMC endstream endobj 221 0 obj <>>>/Resources 223 0 R/Subtype/Form>>stream 0 g 0 G 0 i 0 J []0 d 0 j 1 w 10 M 0 Tc 0 Tw 100 Tz 0 TL 0 Tr 0 Ts BT /Arial 9 Tf 1 0 0 rg 0 -7.106 Td (PROPERTY ) Tj 52.009 0 Td (OF ) Tj 14.999 0 Td (MIT ) Tj 17.995 0 Td (PRESS: ) Tj 35.513 0 Td (FOR ) Tj 21.498 0 Td (PROOFREADING ) Tj 75.507 0 Td (AND ) Tj 21.502 0 Td (INDEXING ) Tj 46.006 0 Td (PURPOSES ) Tj 52.515 0 Td (ONLY) Tj ET endstream endobj 223 0 obj <> endobj 224 0 obj <> endobj 222 0 obj <>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 220 0 obj <> endobj 216 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (175)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.002 Tc 0.013 Tw 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm [(purchase user data as a commodity for them, and those who traffic in use\ r)-2( )]TJ -0.036 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(data for other reasons \(that is, credit card companies\), have a strong\ er voice)-2( )]TJ 0.005 Tw T* [(because of it, in both the marketplace and in the halls of legislative p\ ower,)-2( )]TJ 0.094 Tw T* (and are increasingly involving themselves in political debates about con\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.036 Tw T* [(sumer safeguards and digital rights. We are seeing the deployment of dat\ a)-2( )]TJ 0.181 Tw T* [(mining in the arenas of political organizing \(Howard 2005\), journalism\ )-2( )]TJ 0.035 Tw T* [(\(Anderson 2011\), and )1(publishing \(Striphas 2009\), where )1(the secrets drawn)-2( )]TJ 0.057 Tw T* [(from massive amounts of user data are taken as compelling guidelines for\ )-2( )]TJ -0.03 Tw T* [(future content production, be it the next microtargeted campaign ad or t\ he)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (next pop phenomenon.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0 -2.889 TD (The Evaluation of Relevance)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.034 Tw T* (When users click \223Search,\224 or load their Facebook News Feed, or as\ k for rec)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.041 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(ommendations from Netflix, algorithms must instantly and automatically)-2( )]TJ 0.011 Tw T* [(identify which of the trillions of bits of information best meets the cr\ iteria)-2( )]TJ 0.03 Tw T* [(at hand, and will best satisfy a specific user and his presumed aims. Wh\ ile)-2( )]TJ 0.151 Tw T* [(these )1(calculations )1(have )1(never )1(been )1(simple, )1(they )1(have )1(grown )1(more )1(com)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.014 Tw T* [(plex as the public use of these services has matured. Search algorithms,\ for)-2( )]TJ 0.026 Tw T* [(example, once based on simply tallying how often the actual search terms\ )-2( )]TJ 0.009 Tw T* [(appear in the indexed web pages, now incorporate contextual information)-2( )]TJ 0.044 Tw T* [(about )1(the sites and )1(their hosts, consider how )1(often the site is )1(linked )1(to )1(by)-2( )]TJ -0.041 Tw T* [(others and in what ways, and enlist natural language processing techniqu\ es)-2( )]TJ -0.027 Tw T* [(to better \223understand\224 both the query and the resources that the a\ lgorithm)-2( )]TJ 0.011 Tw T* [(might )1(return )1(in )1(response. )1(According )1(to )1(Google, )1(its )1(search )1(algorithm )1(exam)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (ines over two hundred signals for every query.)Tj 0 Tc 5.4 0 0 5.4 274.3169 269.3851 Tm (2)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.015 Tw 9 0 0 9 93 252.3851 Tm (These signals are the means by which the algorithm approximates \223rele\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.013 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(vance.\224 )1(But )1(here )1(is )1(where )1(sociologists )1(of )1(algorithms )1(must )1(firmly )1(plant )1(their)-2( )]TJ 0.093 Tw T* [(feet: \223relevant\224 is a fluid and loaded judgment, as open to interp\ retation)-2( )]TJ -0.015 Tw T* [(as some of the evaluative terms media scholars have already unpacked, li\ ke)-2( )]TJ 0.127 Tw T* [(\223newsworthy\224 or \223popular.\224 )-1(As there is no independent metric for what)-2( )]TJ /T1_2 1 Tf 0.002 Tw T* (actually)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.026 Tw [( are the most relevant search results for any given query, engineers)-2( )]TJ 0.063 Tw T* [(must decide what results look \223right\224 and tweak their algorithm to\ attain)-2( )]TJ 0.09 Tw T* [(that result, or make changes based on evidence from their users, treatin\ g)-2( )]TJ 0.16 Tw T* (quick clicks and no follow-up searches as an approximation, not of rel)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.063 Tw T* [(evance exactly, but of satisfaction. 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As\ )-2( )]TJ -0.039 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(Balka \(2011\) described it, information systems produce \223shadow bodi\ es\224 by)-2( )]TJ 0.062 Tw T* [(emphasizing some aspects of their subjects and overlooking others. These\ )-2( )]TJ 0.157 Tw T* [(shadow bodies persist and proliferate through information systems, and)-2( )]TJ -0.046 Tw T* [(the slippage between the anticipated user and the user themselves that t\ hey)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (represent can be either politically problematic, or politically producti\ ve.)Tj 0.091 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(But algorithms are not always about exhaustive prediction; sometimes)-2( )]TJ 0.077 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(they are about sufficient approximation. Perhaps just as important as th\ e)-2( )]TJ -0.033 Tw T* [(surveillance of users are the conclusions providers are willing to draw \ based)-2( )]TJ 0.196 Tw T* (on relatively little information about them. Hunch.com, a content rec)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.114 Tw T* [(ommendation service, boasted that they could know a user\222s preference\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.096 Tw T* [(with 80\22685 percent accuracy based on the answers to just five questio\ ns.)-2( )]TJ 0.082 Tw T* [(While this radically boils down the complexity of a person to five point\ s)-2( )]TJ -0.026 Tw T* (on a graph, what\222s important is that this is sufficient accuracy for \ their pur)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.002 Tw T* (poses.)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw 5.4 0 0 5.4 106.0467 412.3851 Tm (1)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.024 Tw 9 0 0 9 109.1354 408.3851 Tm [( Because such sites are comfortable catering to these user caricatures,)-2( )]TJ 0.07 Tw -3.126 -1.444 Td [(the questions that appear to sort us most sufficiently, particularly aro\ und)-2( )]TJ 0.016 Tw T* [(our )1(consumer )1(preferences, )1(are )1(likely )1(to )1(grow )1(in )1(significance )1(as )1(public )1(mea)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.018 Tw T* [(sures. And )1(to )1(some )1(degree, )1(we )1(are )1(invited )1(to )1(formalize )1(ourselves )1(into )1(these)-2( )]TJ 0.073 Tw T* (knowable categories. When we encounter these providers, we are encour)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.004 Tw T* [(aged to choose from the menus they offer, so as to be correctly anticipa\ ted)-2( )]TJ 0.019 Tw T* (by the system and provided the right information, the right recommenda)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (tions, the right people.)Tj 0.059 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Beyond knowing the personal and the demographic details about each)-2( )]TJ -0.063 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td (user, information providers conduct a great deal of research trying to u\ nder)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.01 Tw T* [(stand, and then operationalize, how humans habitually seek, engage with,\ )-2( )]TJ 0.166 Tw T* [(and digest information. Most notably in the study of human\226computer)-2( )]TJ -0.029 Tw T* [(interaction \(HCI\), the understanding of human psychology and perceptio\ n)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* [(is brought to bear on the design of algorithms and the ways in which the\ ir)-2( )]TJ 0.073 Tw T* (results should be represented. Designers hope to anticipate users\222 ps\ ycho-)Tj -0.063 Tw T* [(physiological capabilities and tendencies, not just specific users\222 p\ references)-2( )]TJ -0.035 Tw T* [(and habits. But in these anticipations, too, implicit and sometimes poli\ tical)-2( )]TJ 0.072 Tw T* [(valences can be inscribed in the technology \(Sterne 2003\): the percept\ ual)-2( )]TJ 0.099 Tw T* (or interpretive habits of some users are taken to be universal, contempo\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.035 Tw T* [(rary habits are imagined to be timeless, particular computational goals \ are)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (assumed to be self-evident.)Tj 0.111 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(We are also witnessing a new kind of information power, gathered in)-2( )]TJ 0.136 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(these enormous databases of user activity and preference, which is itsel\ f)-2( )]TJ 0.044 Tw T* (reshaping the political landscape. 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Sites hope to anticipate\ the)-2( )]TJ -0.052 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(user at the moment the algorithm is called on, which requires knowledge \ of)-2( )]TJ 0.037 Tw T* [(that )1(user )1(gleaned )1(at )1(that )1(instant, )1(knowledge )1(of )1(that )1(user )1(already )1(gathered,)-2( )]TJ 0.091 Tw T* [(and knowledge of users estimated to be statistically and demographically\ )-2( )]TJ 0.134 Tw T* [(like them \(Beer 2009\)\227drawing together what Stalder and Mayer \(200\ 9\))-2( )]TJ 0.025 Tw T* [(call the \223second index.\224 If broadcasters were providing not just c\ ontent to)-2( )]TJ 0.073 Tw T* (audiences but also audiences to advertisers \(Smythe 2001\), digital pro\ vid)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.033 Tw T* (ers are not just providing information to users but also users to their \ algo)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.011 Tw T* [(rithms. And algorithms are made and remade in every instance of their us\ e)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (because every click, every query, changes the tool incrementally.)Tj -0.032 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Much of the scholarship about the data collection and tracking practices\ )-2( )]TJ 0.03 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(of )1(contemporary )1(information providers has focused on the significant )1(pri)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.055 Tw T* [(vacy concerns they provoke. Zimmer \(2008\) argues that search engines n\ ow)-2( )]TJ 0.086 Tw T* [(not only aspire to relentlessly index the web but also to develop \223pe\ rfect)-2( )]TJ 0.013 Tw T* [(recall\224 of all of their users. To do this, information providers must\ not just)-2( )]TJ 0.115 Tw T* (track their users, they must also build technical infrastructures and bu\ si)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.034 Tw T* [(ness models that link individual sites into a suite of services \(like G\ oogle\222s)-2( )]TJ -0.002 Tw T* [(many tools and services\) or an even broader ecosystem \(as with Faceboo\ k\222s)-2( )]TJ -0.054 Tw T* (\223social graph\224 and its \223like\224 buttons scattered across the w\ eb\), and then cre)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.046 Tw T* [(ate incentives for users to remain within it. This allows the provider t\ o be)-2( )]TJ -0.021 Tw T* [(\223passive-aggressive\224 \(Berry 2012\) in how it assembles informatio\ n gathered)-2( )]TJ 0.044 Tw T* [(across many sites into a coherent and increasingly comprehensive profile\ .)-2( )]TJ 0.009 Tw T* [(Providers also )1(take )1(advantage )1(of )1(the )1(increasingly )1(participatory )1(ethos )1(of )1(the)-2( )]TJ 0.028 Tw T* (web, where users are powerfully encouraged to volunteer all sorts of inf\ or)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.148 Tw T* [(mation about themselves, and encouraged to feel powerful doing so. As)-2( )]TJ 0.06 Tw T* (our micropractices migrate more and more to these platforms, it is seduc\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.113 Tw T* [(tive \(though not obligatory\) for information providers to both track a\ nd)-2( )]TJ 0.051 Tw T* [(commodify that activity in a variety of ways \(Gillespie and Postigo 201\ 2\).)-2( )]TJ 0.015 Tw T* [(Moreover, users may be unaware that their activity across the web is bei\ ng)-2( )]TJ 0.165 Tw T* [(tracked by the biggest online advertisers, and they are have little or n\ o)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (means to challenge this arrangement even if they do \(Turow 2012\).)Tj 0.069 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Yet privacy is not the only politically relevant concern. In these cycle\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.14 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(of anticipation, it is the bits of information that are most legible to \ the)-2( )]TJ -0.027 Tw T* [(algorithm, and thus tend to stand in for those users. What Facebook know\ s)-2( )]TJ -0.04 Tw T* [(about its users is a great deal; but still, it knows only what it is abl\ e to know.)-2( )]TJ -0.008 Tw T* [(The )1(most knowable )1(information )1(\(geolocation, computing platform, profile)-2( )]TJ -0.016 Tw T* [(information, friends, status updates, links followed on the site, time o\ n the)-2( )]TJ 0.037 Tw T* (site, activity on other sites that host \223like\224 buttons or cookies\)\ is a render)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.033 Tw T* [(ing of that user, a \223digital dossier\224 \(Solove 2004\) or \223algor\ ithmic identity\224)-2( )]TJ 0.018 Tw T* [(\(Cheney-Lippold )1(2011\) )1(that )1(is )1(imperfect )1(but )1(sufficient. )1(What )1(is )1(less )1(legible)-2( )]TJ ET q 0 0 474 690 re W n q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 1.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 1 SCN 0.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m 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The invisibility is an important feature here: the archive\ pres)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.012 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(ents itself as being the set of all possible statements, rather than the\ law of)-2( )]TJ 0.092 Tw T* [(what can be said.\224 \(Bowker 2006, 12\22614\). Even in the current con\ ditions)-2( )]TJ 0.167 Tw T* [(of digital abundance \(Keane 1999\), in which it is cheaper and easier t\ o)-2( )]TJ 0.103 Tw T* [(err on the side of keeping information rather than not, there is always \ a)-2( )]TJ 0.002 Tw T* (remainder.)Tj -0.034 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Sites can, themselves, refuse to allow data collectors )1(\(like search engines\))-2( )]TJ 0.077 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(to index their sites. Elmer \(2009\) reveals that robot.txt, a bit of co\ de that)-2( )]TJ 0.011 Tw T* (prevents search engines from indexing a page or site, though designed in\ i)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.089 Tw T* [(tially as a tool for preserving the privacy of individual creators, has \ since)-2( )]TJ 0.09 Tw T* (been used by government institutions to \223redact\224 otherwise public \ docu)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.07 Tw T* [(ments from public scrutiny. But beyond self-exclusion, some information)-2( )]TJ 0.123 Tw T* [(initially collected is subsequently removed before an algorithm ever get\ s)-2( )]TJ 0.14 Tw T* [(to it. Though large-scale information services pride themselves on being\ )-2( )]TJ 0.007 Tw T* [(comprehensive, these sites are and always must be censors as well. Index\ es)-2( )]TJ 0.115 Tw T* [(are culled of spam and viruses, patrolled for copyright infringement and\ )-2( )]TJ -0.027 Tw T* [(pornography, )1(and )1(scrubbed )1(of )1(the )1(obscene, )1(the )1(objectionable, )1(or )1(the )1(politi)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc T* (cally contentious \(Gillespie forthcoming\).)Tj -0.055 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Offending content can simply be removed from the index, or an account)-2( )]TJ -0.051 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(suspended, before )1(it ever reaches another user. But, in tandem )1(with an algo)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.031 Tw T* [(rithm, problematic content can be handled in more subtle ways. YouTube)-2( )]TJ -0.01 Tw T* [(\223algorithmically demotes\224 suggestive videos, so they do not appear\ on lists)-2( )]TJ -0.018 Tw T* [(of the most watched, or on the home page generated for new users. Twitte\ r)-2( )]TJ 0.094 Tw T* [(does not censor profanity from public tweets, but it does remove it from\ )-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (their algorithmic evaluation of which terms are \223Trending.\224)Tj 0.09 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(The particular patterns whereby information is either excluded from a)-2( )]TJ -0.051 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(database, or included and then managed in particular ways, are reminisce\ nt)-2( )]TJ 0.017 Tw T* [(of )1(twentieth-century debates \(Tushnet 2008\) about )1(the ways )1(choices )1(made)-2( )]TJ -0.028 Tw T* (by commercial media about who is systematically left out and what catego\ )Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.108 Tw T* [(ries of speech simply don\222t qualify can shape the diversity and chara\ cter)-2( )]TJ 0.022 Tw T* [(of public discourse. Whether enacted by a newspaper editor or by a searc\ h)-2( )]TJ -0.026 Tw T* [(engine\222s indexing tools, these choices help establish and confirm sta\ ndards)-2( )]TJ 0.01 Tw T* [(of viable debate, legitimacy, and decorum. But here, the algorithms can \ be)-2( )]TJ -0.001 Tw T* [(touted as automatic, while it is the patterns of inclusion that predeter\ mine)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (what will or will not appear among their results.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0 -2.889 TD (Cycles of Anticipation)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.057 Tw T* [(Search algorithms determine what to serve up based on input from the use\ r.)-2( )]TJ -0.001 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(But most platforms now make it their business to know much, much more)-2( )]TJ ET q 0 0 474 690 re W n q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 1.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 15 669 cm /CS0 CS 1 SCN 0.25 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m -15 0 l 444 0 m 459 0 l 0 -648 m -15 -648 l 444 -648 m 459 -648 l 6 6 m 6 21 l 6 -654 m 6 -669 l 438 6 m 438 21 l 438 -654 m 438 -669 l S Q q 1 0 0 1 32.578 7.41 cm /CS0 CS 0 SCN 0.4 w /GS0 gs 0 0 m 0.39 0 0.81 0.18 0.966 0.504 c 0.978 0.492 l 0.846 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1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (170)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 94.776 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 327.152 627.1201 Tm (Tarleton Gillespie)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.002 Tw 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm (Collection)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.008 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(We live in a historical moment in which, more than ever before, nearly a\ ll)-2( )]TJ 0.128 Tw T* [(public activity includes keeping copious records, cataloging activity, a\ nd)-2( )]TJ 0.086 Tw T* (archiving documents\227and we do more and more of it on a communica)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.107 Tw T* [(tion network designed such that every login, every page view, and every)-2( )]TJ 0.132 Tw T* [(click leaves a digital trace. Turning such traces into databases involve\ s a)-2( )]TJ 0.051 Tw T* [(complex array of information practices \(Stalder and Mayer 2009\): Googl\ e,)-2( )]TJ 0.037 Tw T* (for example, crawls the web indexing websites and their metadata. It dig\ i)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.053 Tw T* [(tizes )1(real-world )1(information, )1(from )1(library )1(collections )1(to )1(satellite )1(images )1(to)-2( )]TJ 0.006 Tw T* [(comprehensive photo records of )1(city )1(streets. )1(It invites users to )1(provide )1(per)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.007 Tw T* [(sonal and social details as part of their Google+ profile. It keeps exha\ ustive)-2( )]TJ 0.132 Tw T* [(logs of every search query entered and every result clicked. It adds loc\ al)-2( )]TJ T* [(information based on each user\222s computer\222s data. It stores the tr\ aces of)-2( )]TJ -0.008 Tw T* (web surfing practices gathered through their massive advertising network\ s.)Tj 0.008 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(Understanding )1(what )1(is included )1(in )1(such )1(databases requires an attention)-2( )]TJ 0.113 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(to the collection policies of information services, but should also exte\ nd)-2( )]TJ 0.129 Tw T* [(beyond to the actual practices involved. This is not just to spot cases \ of)-2( )]TJ 0.091 Tw T* (malfeasance, though there are some, but to understand how an informa)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.072 Tw T* [(tion provider thinks about the data collection it undertakes. The politi\ cal)-2( )]TJ -0.007 Tw T* [(resistance to Google\222s StreetView project in Germany and India remind\ s us)-2( )]TJ 0.061 Tw T* [(that the answer to the question, \223What does this street corner look l\ ike?\224)-2( )]TJ 0.06 Tw T* [(has different implications for those who want to go there, those who liv\ e)-2( )]TJ 0.122 Tw T* [(there, and those who )1(believe that the answer should not be available in)-2( )]TJ -0.001 Tw T* [(such a public way. But it also reveals what Google thinks of as \223publ\ ic,\224 an)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (interpretation that is being widely deployed across their service.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0 -2.889 TD (Readied for the Algorithm)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.167 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(\223Raw data is an oxymoron\224 \(Gitelman and Jackson 2013\). Data is b\ oth)-2( )]TJ -0.011 Tw T* (already desiccated and persistently messy. Nevertheless, there is a prem\ edi)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.143 Tw T* [(tated order necessary for algorithms to even work. 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Td (MIT ) Tj 17.995 0 Td (PRESS: ) Tj 35.513 0 Td (FOR ) Tj 21.498 0 Td (PROOFREADING ) Tj 75.507 0 Td (AND ) Tj 21.502 0 Td (INDEXING ) Tj 46.006 0 Td (PURPOSES ) Tj 52.515 0 Td (ONLY) Tj ET endstream endobj 256 0 obj <> endobj 257 0 obj <> endobj 255 0 obj <>stream PROPERTY OF MIT PRESS: FOR PROOFREADING AND INDEXING PURPOSES ONLY endstream endobj 247 0 obj <> endobj 243 0 obj <>stream q /GS0 gs /Fm0 Do Q BT 0 0 0 1 k /GS1 gs /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 81 627.1201 Tm (The Relevance of Algorithms)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 188.464 627.1201 Tm ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 379.224 627.1201 Tm (169)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.002 Tc -0.04 Tw 9 0 0 9 81 590.3851 Tm [(Considering how fast these technologies and the uses to which they are p\ ut)-2( )]TJ 0.03 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(are changing, this list must be taken as provisional, not exhaustive. Bu\ t as)-2( )]TJ 0.08 Tw T* [(I see it, these are the most important lines of inquiry into understandi\ ng)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (algorithms as emerging tools of public knowledge and discourse.)Tj 0.006 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(It would also be seductively easy to get this wrong. In attempting to sa\ y)-2( )]TJ 0.094 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(something of substance about the way algorithms are shifting our public)-2( )]TJ 0.021 Tw T* [(discourse, we must firmly resist putting the technology in the explanato\ ry)-2( )]TJ 0.019 Tw T* [(driver\222s seat. While recent sociological study of the Internet has la\ bored to)-2( )]TJ 0.093 Tw T* [(undo the simplistic technological determinism that plagued earlier work,\ )-2( )]TJ -0.032 Tw T* (that determinism remains an alluring analytical stance. A sociological a\ nal)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.086 Tw T* [(ysis must not conceive of algorithms as abstract, technical achievements\ ,)-2( )]TJ -0.048 Tw T* [(but )1(must unpack the warm )1(human )1(and institutional )1(choices )1(that )1(lie behind)-2( )]TJ -0.002 Tw T* [(these cold mechanisms. I suspect that a more fruitful approach will turn\ as)-2( )]TJ 0.016 Tw T* [(much to the sociology of knowledge as to the sociology of technology\227\ to)-2( )]TJ 0.04 Tw T* (see how these tools are called into being by, enlisted as part of, and n\ ego)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.132 Tw T* [(tiated around collective efforts to know and be known. This might help)-2( )]TJ 0.135 Tw T* (reveal that the seemingly solid algorithm is in fact a fragile accomplis\ h)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.037 Tw T* [(ment. It also should remind us that algorithms are now a communication)-2( )]TJ 0.11 Tw T* [(technology; like broadcasting and publishing technologies, they are now)-2( )]TJ -0.035 Tw T* [(\223the scientific instruments of a society at large,\224 \(Gitelman 200\ 6, 5\) and are)-2( )]TJ -0.046 Tw T* [(caught )1(up )1(in )1(and )1(are )1(influencing )1(the )1(ways )1(in )1(which )1(we )1(ratify )1(knowledge )1(for)-2( )]TJ 0.085 Tw T* [(civic life, but in ways that are more \223protocological\224 \(Galloway \ 2004\), in)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (other words, organized computationally, than any medium before.)Tj /T1_0 1 Tf 0 -2.889 TD (Patterns of Inclusion)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf -0.001 Tw T* [(Algorithms )1(are )1(inert, )1(meaningless )1(machines )1(until )1(paired )1(with )1(databases )1(on)-2( )]TJ 0.106 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(which to )1(function. A sociological inquiry into an algorithm must always)-2( )]TJ 0.001 Tw T* [(grapple with the databases to which it is wedded; failing to do so would\ be)-2( )]TJ 0.072 Tw T* [(akin to studying what was said at a public protest, while failing to not\ ice)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (that some speakers had been stopped at the park gates.)Tj 0.152 Tw 1.333 -1.444 Td [(For users, algorithms and databases are conceptually conjoined: users)-2( )]TJ 0.043 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td [(typically treat them as a single, working apparatus. 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)]TJ 0.038 Tw -1.333 -1.444 Td (expression, and have made not just mathematics but )Tj /T1_2 1 Tf 0.002 Tw (all)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 0.038 Tw ( information digi)Tj 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc 0.015 Tw 0 -1.444 TD [(tal, we are subjecting human discourse and knowledge to these procedural\ )-2( )]TJ 0.07 Tw T* [(logics that undergird all computation. 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/T1_1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 93 590.3851 Tm -0.476 -46.764 Td ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_2 1 Tf 0.073 Tw 9 0 0 9 93.198 169.5091 Tm (Entanglement with practice)Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 93 590.3851 Tm 11.901 -46.764 Td [(: how users reshape their practices to suit the)-2( )]TJ 0.131 Tw -13.234 -1.444 Td [(algorithms )1(they )1(depend )1(on, )1(and )1(how )1(they )1(can )1(turn )1(algorithms )1(into )1(ter)]TJ 0 Tc 0 Tw (-)Tj -0.002 Tc -0.001 Tw T* [(rains for political contest, sometimes even to interrogate the politics \ of the)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* (algorithm itself.)Tj 0.002 Tw T* (6.)Tj ET BT /Span <>BDC /T1_1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 93 590.3851 Tm -0.476 -52.54 Td ( )Tj EMC ET BT /T1_2 1 Tf 0.04 Tw 9 0 0 9 93.198 117.5251 Tm (The )Tj 9 0 0 9 93 590.3851 Tm 1.987 -52.54 Td [(production )1(of calculated publics)]TJ /T1_1 1 Tf [(: how )1(the algorithmic presentation of)-2( )]TJ 0.034 Tw -3.321 -1.444 Td [(publics )1(back to )1(themselves )1(shape )1(a public\222s sense of )1(itself, and who )1(is best)-2( )]TJ 0 Tw T* 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0000986258 00000 n 0001004952 00000 n 0001004882 00000 n 0001004917 00000 n 0001020643 00000 n 0001020573 00000 n 0001020608 00000 n trailer <<24AAF1B5AFB94511AC1DC067C9B7D142>]>> startxref 1022919 %%EOF