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0 9_ * I cf cf ZQ Iz W b B X% : Security
Butler Lampson
TECS Week 2005
January 2005
Outline
Introduction: what is security?
Principals, the speaks for relation, and chains of responsibility
Secure channels and encryption
Names and groups
Authenticating systems
Authorization
Implementation
REAL-WORLD SECURITY
Its about value, locks, and punishment.
Locks good enough that bad guys dont break in very often.
Police and courts good enough that bad guys that do break in get caught and punished often enough.
Less interference with daily life than value of loss.
Security is expensivebuy only what you need.
People do behave this way
We dont tell them thisa big mistake
Perfect security is the worst enemy of real security
Elements of Security
Policy: Specifying security What is it supposed to do?
Mechanism: Implementing security How does it do it?
Assurance: Correctness of security Does it really work?
Abstract Goals for Security
Secrecy controlling who gets to read information
Integrity controlling how information changes or resources are used
Availability providing prompt access to information and resources
Accountability knowing who has had access to information or resources
Dangers
Dangers
Vandalism or sabotage that
damages information integrity
disrupts service availability
Theft of money integrity
Theft of information secrecy
Loss of privacy secrecy
Vulnerabilities
Vulnerabilities
Bad (buggy or hostile) programs
Bad (careless or hostile) people giving instructions to good programs
Bad guys corrupting or eavesdropping on communications
Threats
Adversaries that can and want to exploit vulnerabilities
Defensive strategies
Coarse: IsolateKeep everybody out
Disconnect
Medium: ExcludeKeep the bad guys out
Code signing, firewalls
Fine: RestrictLet the bad guys in, but keep them from doing damage
Hardest to implement
Sandboxing, access control
RecoverUndo the damage. Helps with integrity.
Backup systems, restore points
PunishCatch the bad guys and prosecute them
Auditing, police
Assurance
Trusted Computing Base (TCB)
Everything that security depends on
Must get it right
Keep it small and simple
Elements of TCB
Hardware
Software
Configuration
Defense in depth
Assurance: Defense in Depth
Network, with a firewall
Operating system, with sandboxing
Basic OS (such as NT)
Higher-level OS (such as Java)
Application that checks authorization directly
All need authentication
TCB Examples
Policy: Only outgoing Web access
TCB: firewall allowing outgoing port 80 TCP connections, but no other traffic
Hardware, software, and configuration
Policy: Unix users can read system directories, and read and write their home directories
TCB: hardware, Unix kernel, any program that can write a system directory (including any that runs as superuser).
Also /etc/passwd, permissions on all directories.
TCB: Configuration
Done again for each system, unlike HW or SW
New chance for mistakes each time
Done by amateurs, not experts
No learning from experience
Little training
Needs to be very simple
At the price of flexibility, fine granularity
Making Configuration Simple
Userskeep it simple
At most three levels: self, friends, others
Three places to put objects
Everything else done automatically with policies
Administratorskeep it simple
Work by defining policies. Examples:
Each user has a private home folder
Each user in one workgroup with a private folder
System folders contain vendor-approved releases
All executable programs signed by a trusted party
Todays systems dont support this very well
Assurance: Configuration Control
Its 2 am. Do you know what software is running on your machine?
Secure configuration ( some apps dont run
Hence must be optional: Secure my system
Usually used only in an emergency
Affects the entire configuration
Software: apps, drivers, macros
Access control: shares, authentication
Also need configuration audit
Why We Dont Have Real Security
A. People dont buy it
Danger is small, so its OK to buy features instead.
Security is expensive.
Configuring security is a lot of work.
Secure systems do less because theyre older.
Security is a pain.
It stops you from doing things.
Users have to authenticate themselves.
B. Systems are complicated, so they have bugs.
Especially the configuration
Principles for Security
Security is not formal
Security is not free
Security is fractal
Abstraction cant keep secrets
Covert channels leak them
Its all about lattices
ELEMENTS OF SECURITY
Policy: Specifying security What is it supposed to do?
Mechanism: Implementing security How does it do it?
Assurance: Correctness of security Does it really work?
Specify: Policies and Models
Policy specifies the whole system informally.
Secrecy Who can read information?
Integrity Who can change things, and how?
Availability How prompt is the service?
Modelspecifies just the computer system, but does so precisely.
Access control model guards control access to resources.
Information flow model classify information, prevent disclosure.
Implement: Mechanisms and Assurance
Mechanisms tools for implementation.
Authentication Who said it?
Authorization Who is trusted?
Auditing What happened?
Trusted computing base.
Keep it small and simple.
Validate each component carefully.
Information flow model (Mandatory security)
A lattice of labels for data:
unclassified < secret < top secret;
public < personal < medical < financial
label( f (x)) = max(label( f ), label(x))
Labels can keep track of data properties:
how secret Secrecy
how trustworthy Integrity
When you use (release or act on) the data, user needs a ( clearance
Access Control Model
Guards control access to valued resources.
Access Control
Guards control access to valued resources.
Structure the system as
Objects entities with state.
Principals can request operations
on objects.
Operations how subjects read or change objects.
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Access Control Rules
Rules control the operations allowed for each principal and object.
Principal may doOperation onObjectTaylorReadFile RaisesLampsonSend HelloTerminal 23Process 1274RewindTape unit 7SchwarzkopfFire three shotsBow gunJonesPay invoice 432Account Q34MechanismsThe Gold Standard
Authenticating principals
Mainly people, but also channels, servers, programs (encryption makes channels, so key is a principal)
Authorizing access
Usually for groups, principals that have some property, such as Microsoft employee or type-safe or safe for scripting
Auditing
Assurance
Trusted computing base
Standard Operating System Security
Assume secure channel from user (without proof)
Authenticate user by local password
Assign local user and group SIDs
Access control by ACLs: lists of SIDs and permissions
Reference monitor is the OS, or any RPC target
Domains: same, but authenticate by RPC to controller
Web servers: same, but simplified
Establish secure channel with SSL
Authenticate user by local password (or certificate)
ACL on right to enter, or on users private state
NT Domain Security
Just like OS except for authentication
OS does RPC to domain for authentication
Secure channel to domain
Just do RPC(user, password) to get users SIDs
Domain may do RPC to foreign domain
Pairwise trust and pairwise secure channels
SIDs include domain ID, so a domain can only authenticate its own SIDs
Web Security Today
Server: Simplified from single OS
Establish secure channel with SSL
Authenticate user by local password (or certificate)
ACL on right to enter, or on users private state
Browser (client): Basic authentication
Of server by DNS lookup, or by SSL + certificate
Of programs by suppliers signature
Good programs run as user
Bad ones rejected or totally sandboxed
END-TO-END EXAMPLE
Alice is at Intel, working on Atom, a joint Intel-Microsoft project
Alice connects to Spectra, Atoms web page, with SSL
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Chain of responsibility
Alice at Intel, working on Atom, connects to Spectra, Atoms web page, with SSL
Chain of responsibility:
KSSL ( Ktemp ( KAlice ( Alice@Intel ( Atom@Microsoft ( Spectra
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Principals
Authentication: Who sent a message?
Authorization: Who is trusted?
Principal abstraction of who:
People Lampson, Taylor
Machines VaxSN12648, Jumbo
Services SRC-NFS, X-server
Groups SRC, DEC-Employees
Roles Taylor as Manager
Joint authority Taylor and Lampson
Weakening Taylor or UntrustedProgram
Channels Key #7438
Theory of Principals
Principal says statement P says s
Lampson says read /SRC/Lampson/foo
SRC-CA says Lampsons key is #7438
Axioms
If A says s and A says (s implies s') then A says s'
If A = B then (A says s) = (B says s)
T h e S p e a k s f o r R e l a t i o n
P r i n c i p a l A s p e a k s f o r B a b o u t T A T B I f A s a y s s o m e t h i n g i n s e t T , B d o e s t o o :
T h u s , A i s s t r o n g e r t h a n B , o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r B , a b o u t T
P r e c i s e l y : ( A s a y s s ) ( ( s ( T ) i m p l i e s ( B s a y s s )
T h e s e a r e t h e l i n k s i n t h e c h a i n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
E x a m p l e s
A l i c e A t o m g r o u p o f p e o p l e
K e y # 7 4 3 8 A l i c e k e y f o r A l i c e
D e l e g a t i n g A u t h o r i t y
H o w d o w e e s t a b l i s h a l i n k i n t h e c h a i n : a f a c t Q ( R
T h e v e r i f i e r o f t h e l i n k m u s t s e e e v i d e n c e , o f t h e f o r m
P s a y s Q ( R
T h e r e a r e t h r e e q u e s tions about this evidence
How do we know that P says the delegation?
Why do we trust P for this delegation?
Why is P willing to say it?
How Do We Know P says X?
If P isthena keyP signs X cryptographicallysome other channelmessage X arrives on channel Pthe verifier itselfX is an entry in a local databaseThese are the only ways that the verifier can directly know who said something: receive it on a secure channel or store it locally
Otherwise we need C(P, where C is one of these cases
Get this by recursion
Why Do We Trust The Delegation?
We trust A to delegate its own authority.
Delegation rule: If P says Q (R then Q (R
Reasonable if P is competent and accessible.
Why Is P Willing To Delegate To Q?
Some facts are installed manually
KIntel ( Intel, when Intel and Microsoft establish a direct relationship
The ACL entry Lampson ( usr/Lampson
Others follow from the properties of some algorithm
If Diffie-Hellman yields KDH, then I can say KDH ( me, provided
You are the other end of the KDH run
You dont disclose KDH to anyone else
You dont use KDH to send anything yourself.
In practice I simply sign KDH ( Kme
Why Is P Willing To Delegate To Q?
Others follow from the properties of some algorithm
If server S starts process P from and sets up a channel C from P, it can say C ( SQLv71
Of course, only someone who believes S ( SQLv71 will believe this
To be conservative, S might compute a strong hash HSQLv71 of SQLv71.exe and require
Microsoft says HSQLv71 ( SQLv71
before authenticating C
Chain of responsibility
Alice at Intel, working on Atom, connects to Spectra, Atoms web page, with SSL
Chain of responsibility:
KSSL ( Ktemp ( KAlice ( Alice@Intel ( Atom@Microsoft ( Spectra
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authenticating Channels
Chain of responsibility:
KSSL(Ktemp(KAlice(Alice@Intel( ...Ktemp saysKAlice says(SSL setup)(via smart card) SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authenticating Names: SDSI
A name is in a name space, defined by a principal P
P is like a directory. The root principals are keys.
Rule: P speaks for any name in its name space
KIntel ( Intel ( Intel/Alice (= Alice@Intel)
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authenticating Names
KIntel ( Intel ( Intel/Alice (= Alice@Intel)
Ktemp(KAlice(Alice@Intel( ...KIntel says SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authenticating Groups
A group is a principal; its members speak for it
Alice@Intel ( Atom@Microsoft
Bob@Microsoft ( Atom@Microsoft
Evidence for groups: Just like names and keys.
KMicrosoft ( Microsoft ( Microsoft/Atom (= Atom@Microsoft)
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authenticating Groups
KMicrosoft ( Microsoft ( Atom@Microsoft
... (KAlice(Alice@Intel(Atom@Microsoft( ...KMicrosoft says SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authorization with ACLs
View a resource object O as a principal
P on Os ACL means P can speak for O
Permissions limit the set of things P can say for O
If Spectras ACL says Atom can r/w, that means
Spectra says Atom@Microsoft (r/w Spectra
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authorization with ACLs
Spectras ACL says Atom can r/w
...(Alice@Intel(Atom@Microsoft(r/wSpectraSpectra says SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
End-to-End Example: Summary
Request on SSL channel: KSSL says read Spectra
Chain of responsibility:
KSSL ( Ktemp ( KAlice ( Alice@Intel ( Atom@Microsoft ( Spectra
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Compatibility with Local OS?
(1) Put network principals on OS ACLs
(2) Let network principal speak for local one
Alice@Intel A l i c e @ m i c r o s o f t
U s e n e t w o r k a u t h e n t i c a t i o n
r e p l a c i n g l o c a l o r d o m a i n a u t h e n t i c a t i o n
U s e r s a n d A C L s s t a y t h e s a m e
( 3 ) A s s i g n S I D s t o n e t w o r k p r i n c i p a l s
D o t h i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y
U s e n e t w o r k a u t h e n t i c a t i o n a s b e f o r e
S u m m a r i e s
T h e c h a i n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y c a n b e long
Ktemp says KSSL ( Ktemp
KAlice says Ktemp ( KAlice
KIntel says KAlice ( Alice@Intel
KMicrosoft says Alice@Intel ( Atom@Microsoft
Spectra says Atom@Microsoft (r/w Spectra
Can replace a long chain with one summary certificate
Spectra says KSSL (r/w Spectra
Need a principal who speaks for the end of the chain
This is often called a capability
Lattice of Principals
A and B max, least upper bound
(A and B) says s ( A s a y s s ) a n d ( B s a y s s )
A o r B m i n , g r e a t e s t l o w e r b o u n d
( A o r B ) s a y s s ( A s a y s s ) o r ( B s a y s s )
N o w A B ( A = A a n d B ) ( B = A o r B )
T h u s i s t h e l a t t i c e s p a r t i a l o r d e r
C o u l d w e i n t e r p r e t t h i s a s s e t s ? N o t e a s i l y : a n d i s n o t i n t e r s e c t i o n
F a c t s a b o u t P r i n c i p a l s
A = B i s e q u i v a l e n t t o ( A B ) a n d ( B A )
i s t r a n s i t i v e
a n d , o r a r e a s s o c i a t i v e , c o m m u t a t i v e , a n d i d e m p o t e n t
a n d , o r a r e m o n o t o n i c :
I f A ' A t h e n ( A ' a n d B ) ( A a n d B )
( A ' o r B ) ( A o r B )
I m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e a p r i n c i p a l m a y b e s t r o n g e r t h a n n e e d e d
L a t t i c e s : I n f o r m a t i o n F l o w t o P r i n c i p a l s
A l a t t i c e o f l a b e l s :
u n c l a s s i f i e d < s e c r e t < t o p s e c r e t ;
p u b l i c < p e r s o n a l < m e d i c a l < f i n a n c i a l
U s e t h e s a m e l a b e l s a s p r i n c i p a l s , a n d l e t r e p r e s e n t c l e a r a n c e
l a m p s o n s e c r e t
Or, use names rooted in principals as labels
lampson/personal, lampson/medical
Then the principal can declassify
SECURE CHANNELS
A secure channel:
says things directly C says s
has known possible receivers secrecy
possible senders integrity
if P is the only possible sender, then C P
E x a m p l e s
W i t h i n a n o d e : o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m ( p i p e s , e t c . )
B e t w e e n n o d e s :
S e c u r e w i r e d i f f i c u l t t o i m p l e m e n t
N e t w o r k f a n t a s y f o r m o s t n e t w o r k s
E n c r y p t i o n p r a c t i c a l
N a m e s f o r C h a n n e l s
A c h a n n e l n e e d s a n a m e t o b e a u t h e n t i c a t e d p r o p e r l y
K A l i c e s a y s K t e m p ( KAlice
Its not OK to have
KAlice says this channel ( KAlice
unless you trust the receiver not to send this on another channel!
Thus it is OK to authenticate yourself by sending a password to Alpha XR on an SSL channel already authenticated (by a Verisign certificate) as going to Amazon.
Multiplexing a Channel
Connect n channels A, B, ... to one channel X to make n new sub-channels X|A, X|B, ... Each subchannel has its own address on X
The multiplexer must be trusted
Quoting
A | B A quoting B
A | B s a y s s A s a y s ( B s a y s s )
A x i o m s
| i s a s s o c i a t i v e
| d i s t r i b u t e s o v e r a n d , o r
A * A | B A | B
M u l t i p l e x i n g a C h a n n e l : E x a m p l e s
M u l t i p l e x e r M a i n c h a n n e l S u b c h a n n e l s A d d r e s s O S n o d e n o d e p r o c e s s p r o c e s s p o r t o r p r o c e s s I D N e t w o r k r o u t i n g n o d e n e t w o r k n o d e n o d e n o d e a d d r e s s S i g n e d S e c u r e C h a n n e l s
T h e c h a n n e l i s d e f i n e d b y t h e k e y : I f o n l y A k n o w s K 1 , t h e n K A ( A c t u a l l y , i f o n l y A u s e s K 1 , t h e n K A )
K s a y s s i s a m e s s a g e w h i c h K c a n v e r i f y
S H A P E \ * M E R G E F O R M A T
T h e b i t s o f K s a y s s can travel on any path
Abstract Cryptography: Sign/Verify
Verify(K, M, sig) = true iff sig = Sign(K', M) and K' = K-1
Is sig Ks signature on M?
Concretely, with RSA public key:
Sign(K-1, M) = RSAencrypt(K-1, SHA1(M))
Verify(K, M, sig) = (SHA1(M) = RSAdecrypt(K, sig))
Concretely, with AES shared key:
Sign(K, M) = SHA1(K, SHA1(K || M))
Verify(K, M, sig) = ( SHA1(K, SHA1(K || M)) = sig)
Concrete crypto is for experts only!
Abstract Cryptography: Seal/Unseal
Unseal(K-1, Seal(K, M)) = M, and without K-1 you cant learn anything about M from Seal(K, M)
Concretely, with RSA public key:
Seal(K, M) = RSAencrypt(K-1, IV || M)
Unseal(K, Msealed) = RSAdecrypt(K, M sealed).M
Concretely, with AES shared key:
Seal(K, M) = AESencrypt(K, IV || M)
Unseal(K, M sealed) = AESdecrypt(K, M sealed).M
Concrete crypto is for experts only!
Sign and Seal
Normally when sealing must sign as well!
Seal(Kseal-1, M || Sign(K sign-1, M))
Often Sign is replaced with a checksum ???
Concrete crypto is for experts only!
Public Key vs. Shared Key
Public key: K ( K-1
Broadcast
Slow
Non-repudiable (only one possible sender)
Used for certificates
Key ( name: KIntel says KAlice ( Alice@Intel
Temp key ( key: Ktemp says KSSL ( Ktemp
KAlice says Ktemp ( KAlice
Shared key: K = K-1
Point to point
Fast
Can simulate public key with trusted on-line server
How Fast is Encryption?
UseNotesrsa encrypt 5 ms (25 KB/s)sign1000 bit modulusrsa decrypt 0.2 ms (625 KB/s)verifyExponent=17sha-1 70 MBytes/ssignhmacaes 50 MBytes/sseal256 bit key
On 2 GHz Pentium, Microsoft Visual C++. Data from Wei Dai at www.cryptopp.com
Might be 2x faster with careful optimization
Fast Encryption in Practice
Want to run at network speed.
How? Put encryption into the data path.
Network interface parses the packet to find a key identifier and maps it to a key for decryption
Parsing depends on network protocol (e.g., TCP/IP)
Messages on Encrypted Channels
If K says s, we say that s is signed by K
Sometimes we call K says s a certificate
The channel isnt real-time: K says s is just bits
K says s can be viewed as
An event: s transmitted on channel K
A pile of bits which makes sense if you know the decryption key
A logical formula
Messages vs. Meaning
Standard notation for Seal(Kseal-1, M || Sign(K sign-1, M)) is {M}K. This does not give the meaning
Must parse message bits to get the meaning
Need unambiguous language for all Ks messages
In practice, this implies version numbers
Meaning could be a logical formula, or English
A, B, {K}KCA means C says (to A) K is a key. C says nothing about A and B. This is useless
{A, B, K}KCA means C says K is a key for A to talk to B. C says nothing about when K is valid
{A, B, K, T}KCA means C says K is a key for A to talk to B first issued at time T
Replay
Encryption doesnt stop replay of messages.
Receiver must discard duplicates.
This means each message must be unique. Usually done with sequence numbers.
Receiver must remember last sequence number while the key is valid.
Transport protocols solve the same problem.
Timeliness
Must especially protect authentication against replay
If C says KA ( A to B and Eve records this, she can get B to believe in KA just by replaying Cs message.
Now she can replay As commands to B.
If she ever learns KA, even much later, she can also impersonate A.
To avoid this, B needs a way to know that Cs message is not old.
Sequence numbers impracticaltoo much long-term state.
Timestamps and Nonces
Timestamps
With synchronized clocks, C just adds the time T, saying to B
KC s a y s K A A a t T
N o n c e s
O t h e r w i s e , B t e l l s C a n o n c e N B w h i c h i s n e w , a n d C s e n d s t o B
K C s a y s K A A a f t e r N B
N A M E S F O R P R I N C I P A L S
A u t h o r i z a t i o n i s t o n a m e d p r i n c i p a l s . U s e r s h a v e t o r e a d t h e s e t o c h e c k t h e m .
L a m p s o n m a y r e a d f i l e r e p o r t
R o o t n a m e s m u s t be defined locally
KIntel ( Intel
From a root you can build a path name
Intel/Alice (= Alice@Intel)
With a suitable root principals can have global names.
/DEC/SRC/Lampson may read file /DEC/SRC/udir/Lampson/report
Authenticating Names
KIntel ( Intel ( Intel/Alice (= Alice@Intel)
Ktemp(KAlice(Alice@Intel( ...KIntel says SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authenticating a Channel
Authentication who can send on a channel.
C P ; C i s t h e c h a n n e l , P t h e s e n d e r .
I n i t i a l i z a t i o n s o m e s u c h f a c t s a r e b u i l t i n : K c a C A .
T o g e t n e w o n e s , m u s t t r u s t s o m e p r i n c i p a l , a c e r t i f i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y .
S i m p l e s t : t r u s t C A t o a u t h e n t i c a t e a n y n a m e : C A A n y b o d y
T h e n C A c a n a u t h e n t i c a t e c h a n n e l s :
K c a s a y s K w s W S K c a s a y s K b w l b w l
O n e - W a y A u t h e n t i c a t i o n
M u t u a l A u t h e n t i c a t i o n
T h i s a l s o w o r k s w i t h s h a r e d k e y s , a s i n K e r b e r o s .
W h o I s T h e C A
B u i l t I n
C A s i n b r o w s e r s
T h e r e a r e l o t s
B e c a u s e o f p o l i t i c s
L o o k a t T o o l s / I n t e r n e t o p t i o n s / Content / Publishers / Trusted root certification authorities
This is a configuration problem
Revocation
Revoke a certificate by making the receiver think its invalid.
To do this fast, the source of certificates must be online.
This loses a major advantage of public keys, and reduces security.
Solution: countersigning
An offline CAassert, highly secure.
An online CArevoke, highly timely.
Both must sign for the certificate to be believed, i.e.,
CAassert and CArevoke A n y b o d y
L a r g e - S c a l e A u t h e n t i c a t i o n
A l a r g e s y s t e m c a n t h a v e C A A n y b o d y .
I n s t e a d , m u s t h a v e m a n y C A ' s , o n e f o r e a c h p a r t .
O n e n a t u r a l w a y i s b a s e d o n a n a m i n g h i e r a r c h y :
A t r e e o f d i r e c t o r i e s w i t h p r i n c i p a l s a s t h e l e a v e s
L a r g e - S c a l e A u t h e n t i c a t i o n : E x a m p l e
K e e p t r u s t a s l o c a l a s p o s s i b l e :
A u t h e n t i c a t i n g A t o B n e e d s t r u s t o n l y u p t o l e a s t c o m m o n a n c e s t o r
d e c f o r / d e c / l a m p s o n / d e c / a b a d i
r o o t f o r / d e c / l a m p s o n / m i t / c l a r k
R u l e s f o r P a t h N a m e s
N e w o p e r a t o r e x c e p t :
I n f o r m a l l y , P e x c e p t M c a n s p e a k f o r P / N a s l o n g a s N `" M
A x i o m s
P e x c e p t M P ( P e x c e p t M ) | N P / N e x c e p t . . i f N `" M c h i l d ( P / N e x c e p t M ) | . . P e x c e p t N i f N `" . . p a r e n t
E f f e c t : A u t h e n t i c a t i o n c a n t r a v e r s e t h e t r e e o u t w a r d f r o m t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t , b u t c a n n e v e r r e t r a c e i t s s t e p s
R u l e s f o r P a t h N a m e s : E x a m p l e
S t a r t w i t h C l a m p s o n / d e c / l a m p s o n e x c e p t n i l k n o w n
C l a m p s o n s a y s C d e c / d e c e x c e p t l a m p s o n p a r e n t C d e c s a y s C r o o t / e x c e p t d e c p a r e n t C r o o t s a y s C m i t / m i t e x c e p t . . c h i l d C m i t s a y s C c l a r k / m i t / c l a r k e x c e p t . . c h i l d
T r u s t i n g F e w e r A u t h o r i t i e s : C r o s s - L i n k s
F o r l e s s t r u s t , a d d l i n k s t o t h e t r e e
N o w l a m p s o n t r u s t s o n l y d e c f o r / d e c / l a m p s o n / d e c / m i t / c l a r k
L o g i n
C h a i n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y :
K S S L ( K t e m p ( K A l i c e ( A l i c e @ I n t e l ( . . . K t e m p s a y s K A l i c e s a y s ( S S L s e t u p ) ( v i a s m a r t c a r d ) S H A P E \ * M E R G E F O R M A T
A u t h e n t i c a t i n g U s e r s
G o a l s
H i d e t h e s e c r e t t h a t a u t h e n t i c a t e s t h e u s e r
A u t h e n t i c a t e w i t h o u t d i s c l o s i n g i t
L e t a n o d e N s p e a k f o r t h e u s e r : N A l i c e
M e t h o d
K A l i c e A l i c e K A l i c e s a y s N A l i c e
K A l i c e 1 i s t h e u s e r s s e c r e t
I t c a n b e s t o r e d e n c r y p t e d b y h e r p a s s w o r d , o r b e t t e r , h e l d i n s i d e a s m a r t c a r d .
I d e n t i f y i n g N o d e s f o r L o g i n D e l e g a t i o n
U s u a l l y a w o r k s t a t i o n h a s n o p e r m a n e n t i d e n t i t y
N o t t r u e f o r s e r v e r s
W o r k s t a t i o n m i g h t h a v e a m e e t s I T G p o l i c y i d e n t i t y
N e e d a t e m p o r a r y p r i n c i p a l f o r A l i c e t o d e l e g a t e t o a t l o g i n
G e n e r a t e l o g i n s e s s i o n k e y K t e m p
U s e r C r e d e n t i a l s
C A g e n e r a t e s :
u s e r k e y : K A l i c e 1
c h i l d c e r t i f i c a t e : K C A s a y s K A l i c e A l i c e
C e r t i f i c a t e i s p u b l i c
W h ere to keep KAlice1?
Smart card
Encrypted by password
On a server
Server-mediated Login
Workstation talks to login server
Server confining users presence
Password
One-time password
Time-varying password
Smart card
Biometrics
Two-factor Authentication
Problems with passwords
Advantages of physical tokens
What if token is stolen?
Combine token and something tied to user
Password / PIN
Biometrics
Problem with passwords: exhaustive search
Problems with biometrics: not secret, cant change
Login with Node I d e n t i t y
C h e c k K c a s a y s K A l i c e A l i c e
G e n e r a t e K t e m p 1 , a l o g i n s e s s i o n k e y .
D e l e g a t e t o s e s s i o n k e y K t e m p a n d n o d e k e y K n
K A l i c e s a y s ( K t e m p a n d K n ) K A l i c e
T h e n t h e s e s s i o n k e y c o u n t e r s i g n s w i t h a s h o r t t i m e o u t , s a y 3 0 m i n u t e s :
K t e m p s a y s K n K t e m p
O S d i s c a r d s K t e m p 1 a t l o g o u t , a n d t h e d e l e g a t i o n e x p i r e s w i t h i n 3 0 m i n u t e s .
G R O U P S a n d G r o u p C r e d e n t i a l s
D e f i n i n g g r o u p s : A g r o u p i s a p r i n c i p a l ; i t s m e m b e r s s p e a k f o r i t
A l i c e @ I n t e l A t o m @ M i c r o s o f t
B o b @ M i c r o s o f t A t o m @ M i c r o s o f t
. . .
P r o v i n g g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p : U s e c e r t i f i c a t e s
K M i c r o s o f t s a y s A l i c e @ I n t e l A t o m @ M i c r o s o f t
A u t h e n t i c a t i n g G r o u p s
K M i c r o s o f t ( M i c r o s o f t ( A t o m @ M i c r o s o f t
. . . ( K A l i c e ( A l i c e @ I n t e l ( A t o m @ M i c r o s o f t ( . . . K M i c r o s o f t s a y s S H A P E \ * M E R G E F O R M A T
W h a t I s A G r o u p
S e t o f p r i n c i p a l s
A l i c e @ I n t e l A t o m @ M i c r o s o f t
P r i n c i p a l s w i t h s o m e p r o p e r t y
R e s i d e n t o v e r 2 1 y e a r s o l d
T y p e - c h e c k e d p r o g r a m
C a n t h i n k o f t h e g r o u p ( o r p r o p e r t y ) a s a n a t t r i b u t e o f e a c h p r i n c i p a l t h a t i s a m e m b e r
C e r t i f y i n g P r o p e r t i e s
N e e d a t r u s t e d a u t h o r i t y : C A t y p e s a f e
A c t u a l l y K M S s a y s C A K M S / t y p e s a f e
U s u a l l y d o n e m a n u a l l y
C a n a l s o b e d o n e b y a p r o g r a m P
A c o m p i l e r
A c l a s s l o a d e r
A m o r e g e n e r a l p r o o f c h e c k e r
L o g i c i s t h e s a m e : P t y p e s a f e
S o m e o n e m u s t a u t h o r i z e t h e p r o g r a m :
K M S s a y s P K M S / t y p e s a f e
G r o u p s A s P a r a m e t e r s
A n a p p l i c a t i o n m a y h a v e s o m e b u i l t - i n g r o u p s
E x a m p l e : I n a n e n t e r p r i s e a p p , e a c h d i v i s i o n h a s
g r o u p s : m a n a g e r , e m p l o y e e s , f i n a n c e , m a r k e t i n g
f o l d e r s : b u d g e t , a d v e r t i s i n g p l a n s , . . .
T h u s , t h e s t e e l d i v i s i o n i s a n i n s tance of this, with
steelMgr, steelEmps, steelFinance, steelMarketing
folders: steelBudget, steelAdplans, ...
P and Q: Separation of Duty
Often we want two authorities for something.
A and B says s = (A says s) ( (B says s)
We use a compound principal with and to express this:
Lampson and Taylor two users
Lampson and Ingres user running an application
CAassert and CArevoke online and offline CAs
P or Q: Weakening
Sometimes want to weaken a principal
A or B says s = (A says s) ( (B says s)
A ( B says read f n e e d s b o t h A R f a n d B R f
E x a m p l e : J a v a r u l e c a l l e e c a l l e r ( c a l l e e - c o d e
E x a m p l e : N T r e s t r i c t e d t o k e n s i f p r o c e s s P i s r u n n i n g u n t r u s t e d - c o d e f o r b l a m p s o n t h e n P b l a m p s o n ( u n t r u s t e d - c o d e
P a s R : R o l e s
T o l i m i t i t s a u t h o r i t y , a p r i n c i p a l c a n a s s u m e a r o l e .
P e o p l e a s s u m e r o l e s : L a m p s o n a s P r o f e s s o r
M a c h i n e s a s s u m e r o l e s a s n o d e s b y r u n n i n g O S p r o g r a m s : V a x # 1 7 2 4 a s b s d 4 . 3 a 4 = J u m b o
N o d e s a s s u m e r o l e s a s s e r v e r s b y r u n n i n g s e r v i c e s :
J u m b o a s S R C - N F S
M e t a p h o r : a r o l e i s a p r o g r a m
E n c o d i n g : A a s R A | R i f R i s a r o l e
A x i o m s : A * A | R A a s R i f R i s a r o l e
B f o r A : M e l d i n g
B f o r A : B a c t i n g o n b e h a l f o f A
W o r k s t a t i o n 2 2 f o r L a m p s o n
I n g r e s f o r L a m p s o n
A x i o m : ( A | B ) a n d ( B | A ) B f o r A
T o d e l e g a t e
A o f f e r s : A | B s a y s B | A B f o r A
B a c c e p t s : B | A s a y s B | A B f o r A
T o g e t h e r : ( A | B a n d B | A ) s a y s B | A B f o r A
F i n a l d e l e g a t i o n : B | A B f o r A
U s i n g a M e l d
S u p p o s e t h e A C L f o r f i l e f o o s a y s
S R C - W S f o r L a m p s o n m a y r e a d f o o
I f w e k n o w W S 2 2 S R C - W S t h e n W S 2 2 f o r L a m p s o n m a y r e a d f o o
M e l d E x a m p l e : L o g i n C r e d e n t i a l s
G e t K b w l 1 f r o m E n c r y p t ( P W , K b w l 1 ) w i t h u s e r s p a s s w o r d
C h e c k K c a s a y s K b w l b w l
O f f e r m e l d t o n o d e k e y K n :
K b w l | K n s a y s K n ( K w s a s T a o s ) f o r K b w l
N o d e a c c e p t s m e l d ( g i v e n K n K w s a s T a o s ) :
K n | K b w l s a y s K n ( K w s a s T a o s ) f o r K b w l
A n d f r o m t h e f o r a x i o m & h a n d o f f
K n ( K w s a s T a o s ) f o r K b w l
A n E x a m p l e
E x a m p l e : D e t a i l s
A U T H E N T I C A T I N G S Y S T E M S : L o a d i n g
A d i g e s t X c a n a u t h e n t i c a t e a p r o g r a m S Q L :
K M i c r o s o f t s a y s I f i m a g e I h a s d i g e s t X t h e n I i s S Q L f o r m a l l y X K M i c r o s o f t / S Q L
T h i s i s j u s t l i k e K A l i c e ( A l i c e @ I n t e l
B u t a p r o g r a m i s n t a p r i n c i p a l : i t c a n t s a y t h i n g s
T o b e c o m e a p r i n c i p a l , a p r o g r a m m u s t b e l o a d e d i n t o a h o s t H
B o o t i n g i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f l o a d i n g
X S Q L m a k e s H
w a n t t o r u n I if H likes SQL
willing to assert that SQL is running
Authenticating Systems: Roles
A loaded program depends on the host it runs on.
We write H as SQL for SQL running on H
H as SQL says s = H says SQL says s
H cant prove that its running SQL
But H can be trusted to run SQL
KTCS says H as SQL K T C S / S Q L
T h i s l e t s H c o n v i n c e o t h e r s t h a t i t s r u n n i n g S Q L
H s a y s C K T C S / S Q L
N o d e C r e d e n t i a l s
M a c h i n e h a s s o m e t h i n g s a c c e s s i b l e a t b o o t t i m e .
A s e c r e t K w s 1 A t r u s t e d C A k e y K c a
B o o t c o d e d o e s t h i s :
R e a d s K w s 1 a n d t h e n m a k e s i t u n r e a d a b l e .
R e a d s b o o t i m a g e a n d c o m p u t e s d i g e s t X t a o s .
C h e c k s K c a s a y s X t a o s T a o s .
G e n e r a t e s K n 1 , t h e n o d e k e y .
S i g n s c r e d e n t i a l s K w s s a y s K n K w s a s T a o s
G i v e s i m a g e K n 1 , K c a , c r e d e n t i a l s , b u t n o t K w s 1 .
O t h e r s y s t e m s a r e s i m i l a r : K w s a s T a o s a s A c c o u n t i n g
N o d e C r e d e n t i a l s : E x a m p l e
E x a m p l e : S e r v e r s A c c e s s C o n t r o l
K w s s a y s K n K w s a s T a o s n o d e c r e d e n t i a l s K b w l s a y s K n ( K w s a s T a o s ) f o r K b w l l o g i n s e s s i o n K n s a y s C K n c h a n n e l C s a y s C | p r ( K w s a s T a o s a s A c c o u n t i n g ) f o r K b w l p r o c e s s C | p r s a y s r e a d f i l e f o o r e q u e s t
S e a l e d S t o r a g e : L o a d a n d U n s e a l
I n s t e a d o f a u t h e n t i c a t i n g a n e w k e y f o r a l o a d e d s y s t e m ,
K w s s a y s K n K w s a s T a o s
U n s e a l a n e x i s t i n g k e y
S K = S e a l ( K W S s e a l - 1 , < A C L : T a o s , S t u f f : K T a o s O n W S - 1 > )
S a v e ( A C L : T a o s , S t u f f : K T a o s O n W S - 1 > ) r e t u r n s S K
O p e n ( S K ) r e t u r n s K T a o s O n W S - 1 i f c a l l e r T a o s
A s s u r a n c e : N G S C B ( P a l l a d i u m )
A c h e a p , c o n v e n i e n t , p h y s i c a l l y s e p a r a t e m a c h i n e
A h i g h - a s s u r a n c e O S s t a c k ( w e h o p e )
A s y s t e m a t i c n o t i o n o f p r o g r a m i d e n t i t y
I d e n t i t y = d i g e s t o f (code image + parameters)
Can abstract this: KMS says digest ( KMS / SQL
Host certifies the running programs identity: H says K ( H as P
Host grants the program access to sealed data
H seals (data, ACL) with its own secret key
H will unseal for P if P is on the ACL
NGSCB Hardware
Protected memory for separate VMs
Unique key for hardware
Random number generator
Hardware attests to loaded software
Hardware seals and unseals storage
Secure channels to keyboard, display
NGSCB Issues
Privacy: Hardware key must be certified by manufacturer
Use Kws to get one or more certified, anonymous keys from a trusted third party
Use zero-knowledge proof that you know a mfg-certified key
Upgrade: v7of SQL needs access to v6 secrets
v6 signs v7 ( v6
or, both ( SQL
Threat model: Other software
Wont withstand hardware attacks
NGSCB Applications
Keep keys secure
Network logon
Authenticating server
Authorizing transactions
Digital signing
Digital rights management
Need app TCB: factor app into
a complicated , secure part that runs on Windows
a simple, secure part that runs on NGSCB
AUTHORIZATION in Access Control
Guards control access to valued resources.
Structure the system as
Objects entities with state.
Principals can request operations
on objects.
Operations how subjects read or change objects.
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Authorization Rules
Rules control the operations allowed for each principal and object.
Principal may doOperation onObjectTaylorReadFile RaisesLampsonSend HelloTerminal 23Process 1274RewindTape unit 7SchwarzkopfFire three shotsBow gunJonesPay invoice 432Account Q34Access Matrix
File RaisesAccount Q34Tape unit 7LampsonreaddepositProcess 1274read/writer/w/rewindFinance deptdeposit/ withdrawRepresenting the Access Matrix
O1
O2
O3
P1
T11
T12
P2
T21
T23
P3
T32
Capability ACL
Prefer ACLs for long-tem authorization
Usually need to audit who can access a resource
Capabilities are fine as a short-term cache
OS file descriptors for open files
Authorization with ACLs
View a resource object O as a principal
P on Os ACL means P can speak for O
Permissions limit the set of things P can say for O
If Spectras ACL says Atom can r/w, that means
Spectra says Atom@Microsoft (r/w Spectra
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
Access Control Lists (ACLs)
Object Os ACL says: principal P may access O.
Lampson may read and write O
(Jumbo for SRC) may append to O
ACLs need named principals so people can read them.
Checking access:
Given a request Q sa y s r e a d O a n a c l P m a y r e a d / w r i t e O
C h e c k t h a t Q s p e a k s f o r P Q P
r i g h t s s u f f i c e r e a d / w r i t e e" r e a d
P e r m i s s i o n s
P r i n c i p a l A s p e a k s f o r B a b o u t T A T B I f A s a y s s o m e t h i n g i n s e t T , B d o e s t o o :
T h u s , A i s s t r o n g e r t h a n B , o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r B , a b o u t T
P r e c i s e l y : ( A s a y s s ) ( ( s ( T ) i m p l i e s ( B s a y s s )
P e r m i s s i o n s r e p r e s e n t s e t s o f s t a t e m e n t s
P m a y r e a d / w r i t e O = P r / w O
T r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e y a p p e a r o n l y i n A C L s , n o t i n d e l e g a t i o n s , w h i c h a r e u n r e s t r i c t e d
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6 ) their methods
Expressing sets of statements.
SDSI / SPKI uses tags to define sets of statements
A tag is a regular expression, that is, a set of strings
The object interprets a string as a set of statements
Read(*.doc) = reads of files named *.doc
< 5000 = purchase orders less than $5000
Also can express unions and intersections of sets
Read(*.doc) and < 5000
Expressive T allows bigger objects: a single permission for all .doc files
Transitivity: Intersecting Sets
If A T B a n d B U C t h e n A T ( U C
W h y ?
A T B a" ( A s a y s s ) ( ( s ( T ) i m p l i e s ( B s a y s s )
B U C a" ( B s a y s s ) ( ( s ( U ) i m p l i e s ( C s a y s s )
H o w t o i m p l e m e n t s e t i n t e r s e c t i o n ?
M i g h t b e a b l e t o s i m p l i f y t h e e x p r e s s i o n
A l w a y s c a n t e s t s a g a i n s t b o t h T a n d U
P r a g m a t ics
Authorization must be
set up
later checked for correctness
changed as life goes on
This works best when the authorization data is small and simple
But, want to authorize the least privilege needed to get the job done
Conflict. Who wins?
Keeping Authorization Simple
ACLs on large sets of resources
Big subtrees of the file system
Large sets of web sites
Usually for groups, principals that have some property, such as Microsoft employee or type-safe or safe for scripting
IMPLEMENTATION
Process C r e d e n t i a l s
M a k e a n o d e - t o - n o d e c h a n n e l C = d e s ( K s r ) u s i n g s h a r e d k e y e n c r y p t i o n .
E s t a b l i s h i n g K s r y i e l d s C K n .
T h e O S m u l t i p l e x e s t h i s s i n g l e c h a n n e l a m o n g p r o c e s s e s .
T h e O S i s s u e s c r e d e n t i a l s f o r t h e s u b c h a n n e l s C | p r . M o r e m u l t i p l e x i n g l e t s a p r o c ess speak for several principals.
API for Authentication
Prin represents principals, with a subtype Auth for that a process can speak for
AID is an Auth identifier, a byte string
Authenticating messages
GetChan(dest:Address): Chan;
GetAID(p:Auth): AID;
Send(dest:Chan; m:Msg);
Receive(): (Chan, Msg);
GetPrin(c:Chan; aid:AID): Prin;
RPC marshals an Auth parameter and unmarshals an aid automatically, thus hiding all these procedures
API for Authentication (2)
Authorization
Check(acl:ACL; p:Prin): BOOL
Managing principals
Inheritance(): ARRAY OF Auth;
Login (name, password: TEXT): Auth;
AdoptRole(a:Auth; role:TEXT): Auth;
Offer (a:Auth; b:Prin): Auth;
Claim(b:Auth; meld:Prin): Auth;
Discard(a:Auth; all:BOOL);
API for Melding
Offer (a:Auth; b:Prin): Auth;
Claim(b:Auth; meld :Prin): Auth;
Implementation Internals
Secure Channel, Authority Managers
The secure channel manager creates process-to-process secure channels.
TYPE ChanID = { nk:KeyDigest; pr:INT; addr:Address };
GetChanID(ch:Chan): ChanID;
PTagFromChan(c:ChanID): PTag;
The authority manager associates Auths with processes and handles authentication requests.
TYPE PrinID = { ch:ChanID; aid:AID };
Delegate(a:Auth; ptag:PTag);
PurgePTag(ptag: PTag);
Credentials Manager
Maintains credentials for local processes and validates certificates from other nodes.
TYPE Cred = TEXT, CredT = ...;
New(name, password: TEXT): CredT;
AdoptRole(t:CredT; role: TEXT): CredT;
Sign(t:CredT; p:PrinID): Cred;
Validate(cr:Cred; p:PrinID): TEXT;
Extract(cr:Cred): Cred;
SignMeld(t:CredT; cr:Cred): Cred;
ClaimMeld(t:CredT; cr:Cred): CredT;
Certification Library
Establishes a trusted mapping between principal names and keys, and between groups and their members.
CheckKey(name:TEXT; k:Key): BOOL;
IsMember(name, group: TEXT): BOOL;
CheckImage(d:Digest; prog, cert: TEXT);
Interfaces to Authentication
There are two styles:
Implicit in communication
Authenticate at connection establishment; a client can find out the principal that the connection speaks for.
Authenticate as part of a remote procedure call; the procedure can find the principal the caller speaks for.
Explicit
Pass the sending principal explicitly in every message.
More flexible: can pass more than one principal.
Either way abstracts authentication protocol details.
The interface just tell you the authenticated principal.
Implementing Authentication: Push vs. Pull
Two ways for receiver B to authenticate sender A:
Push credentials: sender to receiver (Windows SIDs):
A sends B credentials of c h a n n e l C : p r o o f t h a t C A .
P u l l c r e d e n t i a l s : r e c e i v e r f r o m s e n d e r ( A C L s , T a o s ) :
A j u s t s e n d s t o B o n C . B c a l l s b a c k t o A t o g e t c r e d e n t i a l s . B m a y c a c h e t h e m
V a r i a t i o n s
A p u s h e s p a r t o f t h e c r e d e n t i a l s , a n d B p u l l s t h e r e s t .
B g e t s p a r t o f t h e c r e d entials from A, stores part himself, and gets part from network services.
Pull Authentication: Example
Process pr sends on C | pr; OS multiplexes C.
Receivers auth agent asks for C | pr credentials.
Abbreviations
Extend pull to names:
Sender has some long names for principals
Choose a short (integer, byte string) abbreviation for each name
AID is an example
Send the short name; if receiver doesnt know its definition, it calls back to pull it over
Short names must not be reused
Receiver can discard its sh o r t n a m e c a c h e a n y t i m e
I t w i l l b e r e f r e s h e d b y p u l l i f n e e d e d
E x a m p l e : D e t a i l s
T h e E x a m p l e R e v i e w e d
K w s s a y s K n K w s a s T a o s n o d e c r e d e n t i a l s K b w l s a y s K n ( K w s a s T a o s ) f o r K b w l l o g i n s e s s i o n K n s a y s C K n c h a n n e l C s a y s C | p r (Kws as Taos as Accounting) for Kbwl process C | pr says read file foorequest
Bytes vs. Secure Data
Can choose the the flow and storage of encrypted bytes optimize
simplicity
performance
availability.
Public key = off-line broadcast channel.
Write certificate on a tightly secured offline system
Store it in untrusted system; anyone can verify it.
Certificates are secure answers to pre-determined queries, (for example, What is Alices key?) not magic.
Its the same to query an on-line secure database (say Kerberos KDC) over a secure channel
Caching Secure Data
Caching can greatly improve performance
It doesnt affect security or availability
as long as theres always a way to reload the cache if gets cleared or invalidated
Auditing
Checking access:
Given a request Q says read O an ACL P may read/write O
Check that Q speaks for P Q P
r i g h t s a r e e n o u g h r e a d / w r i t e e" r e a d
A u d i t i n g
E a c h s t e p i s j u s t i f i e d b y
a s i g n e d s t a t e m e n t , o r
a r u l e
I m p l e m e n t : T o o l s a n d A s s u r a n c e
S e r v i c e s t o o l s f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
A u t h e n t i c a t i o n W h o s a i d i t ?
A u t h o r i z a t i o n W h o i s t r u s t e d ?
A u d i t i n g W h a t h a p p e n e d ?
T r u s t e d c o m p u t i n g b a s e
K e e p i t s m a l l a n d s i m p l e
V a l i d a t e e a c h c o m p o n e n t c a r e f u l l y
T h e S p e a k s f o r R e l a t i o n
P r i n c i p a l A s p e a k s f o r B a b o u t T A T B I f A s a y s s o m e t h i n g i n s e t T , B d o e s t o o :
T h u s , A i s s t r o n g e r t h a n B , o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r B , a b o u t T
P r e c i s e l y : ( A s a y s s ) ( ( s ( T ) i m p l i e s ( B s a y s s )
T h e s e a r e t h e l i n k s i n t h e c h a i n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
E x a m p l e s
A l i c e A t o m g r o u p o f p e o p l e
K e y # 7 4 3 8 A l i c e k e y f o r A l i c e
C h a i n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
A l i c e a t I n t e l , w o r k i n g o n A t o m , c o n n e c t s t o S p e c t r a , A t o m s web page, with SSL
Chain of responsibility:
KSSL ( Ktemp ( KAlice ( Alice@Intel ( Atom@Microsoft ( Spectra
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT
References
Look at my web page for these: research.microsoft.com/lampson
Computer security in the real world. At ACSAC 2000. A shorter version is in IEEE Computer, June 2004
Authentication in distributed systems: Theory and practice. ACM Trans. Computer Sys. 10, 4 (Nov. 1992)
Authentication in the Taos operating system. ACM Trans. Computer Systems 12, 1 (Feb. 1994)
SDSIA Simple Distributed Security Infrastructure, Butler W. Lampson and Ronald L. Rivest.
References
Jon Howell and David Kotz. End-to-end authorization. In Proc. OSDI 2000
Paul England et al. A Trusted Open Platform, IEEE Computer, July 2003
Ross Andersonwww.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/rja14
Bruce SchneierSecrets and Lies
Kevin MitnickThe Art of Deception
Security in Distributed Systems B. W. Lampson 4 January 2005
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Principal
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